<p>Mirror Lake is a lake in the high Uinta Mountains in Utah. It is a popular fishing and recreation spot. The lake contains three species of trout: rainbow, brook, and tiger. The lake has a Forest Service campground, picnic facilities, and a boat ramp for non-motorized watercraft. Access to the lake is by the Mirror Lake Highway, which is only open during the summer .</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name comes from the near-perfect reflection of the surrounding mountains and trees seen from a roadside overlook or from the shore. The shoreline is owned by the Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest.</p><br>
<p>Mirror Lake includes the adjacent Mirror Lake Campground, with latrines, day-use areas and 94 campsites. The water that enters the lake is overflow from Pass Lake located just above Mirror Lake. The outflow is the headwaters of the Duchesne River.</p><br>
<p>Gnezdovo or Gnyozdovo  is an archeological site located near the village of Gnyozdovo in Smolensky District, Smolensk Oblast, Russia. The site contains extensive remains of a Slavic-Varangian settlement that flourished in the 10th century as a major trade station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The archaeological site comprises a "citadel" (gorodishche) (Городище), formerly situated at the confluence of the Rivers Dnieper and Svinets, and a ring of ancient rural settlements (selitba) which occupy an area of 17.5 hectares, of which roughly 5,000 m&sup2; had been excavated by the end of the 20th century. This makes the site one of the largest survivals of the Viking Age in Europe: only Hedeby covered a larger territory (24 hectares), with the sites of Birka (13 hectares), Dublin (12 hectares), Ribe (10 hectares), and Gdańsk (1 hectare) trailing behind. There are about 3,000 burial mounds arranged in eight clusters of kurgans. Of these, about 1,300 mounds have been explored by Russian and Soviet archaeologists, starting in 1874.</p><br>
<p>There is some disagreement among scholars as to which ethnic element predominated at Gnyozdovo. Although a Varangian presence is pronounced, nineteen mounds out of twenty contain ordinary burials of Krivichs and Baltic men and women. The burial rite is mostly cremation. The most numerous finds are household utensils and pottery. As a general observation, the Gnyozdovo tumuli have parallels with the "druzhina kurgans" of Chernigov, such as the Black Grave.</p><br>
<h2>Finds</h2><br>
<p>Seven hoards of Byzantine and Arabic coins (more than 1,100 of the latter) and a Byzantine dish bearing an image of Simargl have shown that the local community carried on a prosperous trade along the Dnieper. The metal objects represented include hauberks (not typical for Scandinavian sites), helmets, battle-axes, Carolingian swords, and arrows. Among the more surprising discoveries were an early folding razor with a copper handle and a pivoted scissors, probably the earliest found in Eastern Europe.</p><br>
<p>The most unexpected discovery at Gnyozdovo was a Kerch amphora with the earliest inscription attested in the Old East Slavic. The excavator has inferred that the word горушна (gorušna), inscribed on the pot in Cyrillic letters, designates mustard that was kept there. This explanation has not been universally accepted and the inscription seems to be open to different interpretations. The dating of the inscription to the mid-10th century suggests a hitherto unsuspected popularity of the Cyrillic script in pre-Christian Rus.</p><br>
<h2>Historical background</h2><br>
<p>As Tatiana Jackson has observed, Norse sagas contain more detailed information about the Western Dvina (Norse: Dyna) than about any other river of Eastern Europe. This fact highlights a great importance attached to the Dvina trade route by the Vikings.</p><br>
<p>Gnyozdovo is situated downstream from the Dvina&ndash;Dnieper portages, at a point where the Svinets and several small waterways empty into the Dnieper. Like Smolensk at a later period, Gnyozdovo flourished through trade along the Dnieper going south to Constantinople and north over portages to the Dvina and the Lovat, two rivers flowing to the Baltic Sea. At the time of its establishment, the local citadel served a defensive function against possible attacks on the portages, where the Norse traders would be at their most vulnerable. After internal tensions within Kievan Rus settled down, the site of Gnyozdovo "formed the critical exchange centre and refitting base on the route from the Baltic to the Black Sea".</p><br>
<p>The settlement declined in the early years of the 11th century, simultaneously with other Varangian trade stations in Eastern Europe. By the end of the century, Gnyozdovo&#39;s importance as a trade centre had been completely supplanted by nearby Smolensk.</p><br>
<h2>Gnyozdovo and Smolensk</h2><br>
<p>Scholars are not in agreement as to how Gnyozdovo is related to Smolensk (Norse: Smaleskja), situated at the confluence of the Dnieper and the Smolnya Rivers.</p><br>
<p>According to one point of view, Gnyozdovo was the functional and economic predecessor of modern Smolensk. Soviet archaeologists established that the earliest settlement on the site of Smolensk goes back to the early 11th century. In other words, the emergence of Smolensk coincides with the decline of Gnyozdovo. The regional centre could have been moved from Gnyozdovo to Smolensk at some point following the Christianisation of Rus by Vladimir the Great.</p><br>
<p>Another school of thought is represented by Petrukhin and Pushkina who maintain that Smolensk and Gnyozdovo peacefully coexisted throughout the 10th century. According to this version, Gnyozdovo was a pogost of the ruling Kievan monarch which he used to levy tribute from the Krivichs. Since the knyaz&#39;s druzhina was composed primarily of the Norsemen, a substantial Varangian presence at Gnyozdovo seems to be well motivated. Concurrently, Smolensk was an urban centre of the Slavic (Krivich) population, where the regional veche was held. After Vladimir the Great established a local principality for his son, the administrative centre of the region and the seat of princely power was moved from Gnyozdovo to Smyadyn Castle near Smolensk.</p><br>
<p>The dichotomy of a Slavic veche centre and a Varangian druzhina station has parallels in other areas of Rus: compare Novgorod and Holmsgard, Chernigov and Shestovitsa, Rostov and Sarskoye Gorodishche, Yaroslavl and Timeryovo. In later centuries, the ruling princes from the House of Rurik preferred to settle in a fortified castle at a distance from their capital: in Vyshhorod rather than Kiev, in Smyadyn rather than Smolensk, in Kideksha rather than Suzdal, in Bogolyubovo rather than Vladimir.</p><br>
<h2>Nomenclature</h2><br>
<p>The place-name Gnyozdovo seems to be a late medieval derivation from the Slavic word for "nest". It is first recorded in the 17th-century documents. Historians disagree as to what was the earlier name of the settlement. Those who view Gnyozdovo as the antecedent of Smolensk, believe that the name of Smolensk originally applied to Gnyozdovo. According to them, Constantine VII referred to the site of Gnyozdovo when he mentioned the fortress of Smolensk in De Administrando Imperio. The Primary Chronicle records Smolensk even earlier, in connection with Askold and Dir&#39;s raid against Kiev in 867.</p><br>
<p>Vasmer and other etymologists derive the name of Smolensk from the Smolnya River. If so, the original Slavic name for Gnyozdovo must have been different. Tatiana Jackson theorizes that it may have been derived from the name of the Svinets River, reconstructing it as Svinechsk (Свинеческъ). As the name of the river seems to be related to the Russian word for "swine" and ancient Gnyozdovo was situated on a promontory, Jackson identified this settlement with Sýrnes ("swine promontory" in Old Norse), one of seven or eight cities of Gardariki listed in the Norse geographical treatise of Hauksbók.</p><br>
<p>St. Johns Episcopal Church is located at 2600 Church Street in the Ohio City neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio. St. Johns is the oldest consecrated building in Cuyahoga county. This stone gothic revival church building was designed by Hezekiah Eldredge and built beginning in 1836 and was completed 1838. Eldridge was probably familiar with John Henry Hopkins "An Essay on Gothic Architecture", the first book on Gothic ecclesiastical architecture to be published in the United States. St. Johns is a good representative of a small group of American churches inspired by Hopkins&#39; book.</p><br>
<p>On November 9, 1816, a group of Episcopalians met in the log home of Phineas Shepard on the Clevelands west side at what is now West 25th Street and Detroit Avenue, to organize what was to become Trinity Parish. The parish is the site of the original Episcopal congregation in Cleveland. In 1825, east side members moved the original parish, named Trinity from Ohio City, to a site near Public Square. West side members remained in Ohio City, naming the new parish St. Johns.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Cathedral is now the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of Ohio. St. John&#39;s was also the mother church to several of the west side parishes.</p><br>
<p>In 1837, the Ohio City Directory described the church as follows, "The Episcopal Church, which is not yet finished, is built of hammered stone, and has a lofty steeple. Its style of architecture is Gothic, resembling that of the ancient and venerable Cathedral. This building, when finished, will be one of the best of the kind in the western country, and may be considered as an ornament to the young city".</p><br>
<p>The original bell (1846) now is housed in the west side of the narthex, due to weakening of the steeple. Next to the church stands the frame gothic revival Parish Hall is circa (1875).</p><br>
<p>This "Gothicized meeting house" has been rebuilt twice, once after a fire in the 1880s and once after a tornado in 1953. The present plan, with neither a central aisle nor an apse, is therefore similar to the original plan. At one time the church was more elaborate than it is today; the church pinnacles no longer exist. St, John&#39;s was known as "Station Hope" on the Underground Railroad.</p><br>
<p>An Episcopal parish continued to worship in this space through December, 2007; and the building remains property of the Diocese. Currently, social justice events, guest speakers and meetings also occur at the church. As of 2016, the Vicar is The Rev. Kelly Aughenbaugh. Yearly, an event called "Station Hope" occurs in spring.</p><br>
<p>The following is from an advertisement for the event: "STATION HOPE 2017 - A Beacon Of Freedom. A Convening of Community. A CELEBRATION OF HOPE. - Join over 200 artists to engage and reflect on social justice, equity and a shared vision of hope- on the grounds of Clevelands first authenticated Underground Railroad site, St. Johns Episcopal Church in Ohio City. Audiences explore the historic church and surrounding properties to view short works of theatre, music, storytelling and dance, along with choir performances and visual art installations inspired by the most important issues of our time. Saturday, April 29, 2017-- FREE AND OPEN TO ALL." This event is done in partnership with the Cleveland Public Theatre, and other community organizations.</p><br>
<h2>Noted members</h2><br>
<p>William B. Castle: Cleveland mayor</p><br>
<p>Mark Hanna: industrialist and Republican politician from Cleveland.</p><br>
<p>Hezekiah Eldredge: builder, charter member and was a member of the Vestry.</p><br>
<p>Hickory Hill is a large brick house in McLean, Virginia, in the United States, owned for many years by the Kennedy family. Architectural historians, noting that an 1865 ordinance map of the area does not indicate the house, date it to shortly after the American Civil War, circa 1870.</p><br>
<p>The 5.6 acre property was part of an 88 acre tract acquired in 1846 by George Walter, who built several houses in the area prior to his death in 1890. The core of the house itself originally featured an encircling verandah, topped by a mansard roof. In 1931, the house was extensively remodeled largely to its current configuration. It was expanded again in 1964 with a north wing addition.</p><br>
<p>According to the 1920 USA Census, James Patrick "Pat" Speer, a Washington D.C. dentist, lived at Hickory Hill, along with his wife Susan Virginia "Jenny" Morgan Speer. At that time, they lived in the house with their five younger children; their eldest daughter had already married and moved away. Pat Speer practiced dentistry in Washington D.C., in the same building where Clara Barton had previously conducted her work with Civil War veterans and their families.</p><br>
<p>In July 1941 Hickory Hill became the home of newly appointed United States Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson and his wife, Irene, who, in 1955, after his death, sold Hickory Hill to United States Senator John F. Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline. After the 1956 Democratic National Convention, the house was sold to John&#39;s brother Robert F. Kennedy and his wife, Ethel, who had a growing family (eventually eleven children). While he lived at Hickory Hill, Robert Kennedy became Attorney General of the United States, in 1961; a United States Senator, in 1965; and a presidential candidate, in 1968.</p><br>
<p>Hickory Hill was placed on the market in 2004 by the Kennedy family at an asking price of $25 million and then subsequently withdrawn in November 2008. After it was sold in December 2009 to a Virginia businessman for $8.25 million, the house underwent a major renovation, completed in the fall of 2013.</p><br>
<p>The house, along with eleven other historic structures, was designated as a contributing property to the Langley Fork Historic District by the National Park Service&#39;s National Register of Historic Places on October 19, 1982.</p><br>
<p>Serra da Malagueta is a mountain located in the northern part of the island of Santiago, Cape Verde. At 1064 m elevation, it is the second highest peak of Santiago island, after Pico da Antónia , also that mountain is separated by 15.7 km. The mountain and its ranges forms a part of Serra da Malagueta Natural Park , established on February 24, 2005 and covers 774 hectares. It is situated on the border of the municipalities Tarrafal, São Miguel and Santa Catarina. The mountain range dominates the north of the island stretching from Poilão in Santa Cruz up to the vicinity of Tarrafal. Its name etymology is from a plant , a variety of pepper, the "Malagueta pepper". It also gives its name to a nearby settlement in the westcentral portions named Serra da Malagueta or Serra Malagueta, it is also known by its short form of Serra.</p><br>
<p>The mountain area forms a source of several streams including Ribeira Principal (the main stream) and a few nearby springs. Other sources of other streams include Ribeira de Cuba and Ribeira de São Miguel.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the Ice Age from around 15000 to 10000 BC, the elevation was under 1,200 meters, up to about 5000 BC, the elevation was over 1,100 meters.</p><br>
<p>The mountain range was best known for the communities with Rabelados movement. The largest of which lives in the settlement of Espinho Branco located northwest of Calheta de São Miguel.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, the route between Assomada and Tarrafal opened crossing through the middle of Serra Malagueta and bypassing Figueira das Naus and Ribeira da Prata and its dangerous curves by the Atlantic in the range&#39;s west. Construction started somewhere at the end of the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Its geology is similar to that of the rest of Santiago. It is composed of basalt, basanite and basanitoids out of volcanic eruptions of nearby Pico da Antónia. Its rocks date to the miocene and pliocene periods. Its rock formation dominate the north of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The park features about 124 species of plants, of which 28 are endemic.</p><br>
<p>The flora are being threatened by invasive species from outside the park including Lantana camara (lantuna) and Furcraea foetida (Carrapato).</p><br>
<p>Nearly endangered plants includes Lantana camara (lantuna), Furcraea foetida (carrapato) and a few others. Medicinal plants in the mountain include Artemisia gorgonum (losna), Campanula jacobaea (contra bruza azul), Campylantus glaber ssp. Glaber (alecrim-brabo), Echium hypertropicum (cowtongue or cow tongue, Portuguese: lingua de vaca), Globularia amygdalifolia (mato-boton/modronho), Lavandula rotundifolia (aipo-rotcha), Satureja forbesii (erva-cidreira), Sideroxylon marginata ssp. marmulano (ironwood, English: marmulano, Cape Verde ironwood), Tornabenea annua (funcho), Umbilicus schmidtii (Schmidts balsam, Portuguese: balsamo), Verbascum capitis-viridis (sabão de feiticeira). Other that uses for food include Sonchus daltonii (kings heart, Portuguese: coroa de rei) and Euphorbia tuckeyana (tortolho). Plants that are threatened include Conyza feae (losna-brabo), Conyza pannosa (taba) and Limonium lobinii (carqueja de Santiago).</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The park features 19 species of birds, eight are endangered, the birds include Ardea purpurea bournei (garça vermelha de Santiago), Apus alexandri and Cape Verde sparrow (Passer iagoensis), threatened birds include Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalis brevipennis). Six species of reptiles are founded, four are endemic including Chioninia spinalis spinalis (Portuguese: lagartixa pintada), Chioninia vaillanti (Vaillant&#39;s skink, Portuguese: lagarto) and Tarentola rudis rudis, Bufo regularis, the only amphibian species in the mountain and the park and an introduced species.</p><br>
<p>Invertebrates such as insects are found including Acherontia atropos and Papilio demodocus; one is threatened, Diplognata gagetes.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramics</h2><br>
<p>It is one of the places that offers best panoramics including the north and most of the south of the island but not Ribeira Grande de Santiago. The islands can also be seen, including Maio to the east, Fogo to the west-southwest and most of Boa Vista to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>Lake Gaston is a hydroelectric reservoir in the eastern United States. Part of the lake is in the North Carolina counties of Halifax, Northampton, and Warren. The part extending into Virginia lies in Brunswick and Mecklenburg counties. Lake Gaston is roughly 35 mi long and covers over 20,000 acre, with 350 mi of shoreline.</p><br>
<p>The area surrounding the lake is home to more than 150,000 residents. The nearest towns are Littleton and Roanoke Rapids in North Carolina, and Clarksville and South Hill in Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The lake is not federally owned. It was formed when the Virginia Electric Power Company (VEPCO) built Gaston Dam on the Roanoke River to generate electricity for Dominion Resources, which owns the lake. The dam is located on the North Carolina side and generates electricity for Dominion North Carolina Power, which is the North Carolina operating company of Dominion Resources. The dam includes four hydroelectric generators, with a total generating capacity of 224 megawatts.</p><br>
<p>Lake Gaston is fed by water from Kerr Lake upstream, and supplies water to Roanoke Rapids Lake downstream, a smaller predecessor to Lake Gaston. This is one of the few areas of the country with three hydroelectric dams so close together.</p><br>
<p>Lake Gaston has long been popular for fishing and other water recreation. The lake is a favorite vacation spot, because it is close to the Research Triangle region of North Carolina and is close to I-85 and I-95. Lake Gaston was built for flood control, hydroelectric power and recreational enjoyment, including activities such as fishing, boating, swimming, water skiing and wakeboarding.</p><br>
<p>The lake has been a popular retirement destination since the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Lake level and water management</h2><br>
<p>Lake Gaston differs from many other lakes in that the water levels are strictly regulated through a license with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). The license also requires cooperation with the USA Army Corps of Engineers, which manage the upstream feeder lake, Lake Kerr. There are four defined operating conditions for Lake Gaston:</p><br>
<p>Normal: 199 – of elevation</p><br>
<p>Fish Spawning: 199 – of elevation</p><br>
<p>Flood Control: up to 203 ft of elevation (204 ft possible in a 100-year flood event)</p><br>
<p>Drought: No lower than 197 ft feet of elevation</p><br>
<p>As a result of controlled lake levels, fixed docks and boat houses are normal on Lake Gaston.</p><br>
<h2>Lakeside residences</h2><br>
<h3>Community association</h3><br>
<p>The Lake Gaston Association (LGA) is a citizens&#39; organization that actively advocates and promotes the interests of households and businesses who own property in the two states and five counties of Lake Gaston. Each of the five counties surrounding Lake Gaston has four volunteer Director positions on the LGA Board, plus one at-large position, for a total of 25 Directors. It is a volunteer, non-profit, nonpartisan and nonsectarian organization, unified for greater influence with federal, state and local officials and agencies that have management authority on and around Lake Gaston.</p><br>
<h3>Real estate</h3><br>
<p>Lake Gaston covers an extended geographical area and is bordered by several towns. Real estate is generally broken up via quadrant, and realtors will use the terms "South-East", "South-West", "North-East", and "North-West" when discussing general location of a property on the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Waterfront construction authority</h3><br>
<p>Generally speaking, no individual owns waterfront property on Lake Gaston because Dominion Power owns the lake and the land up to the "High Water Mark". Real estate is listed with an indicator which tells the buyer how many linear feet of property they would own which abuts to the High Water Mark. This number used to be referred to as the "HWM" on real estate listings, and is now referred to as "DOM". However, Dominion Power does allow for construction of boat houses and other permitted structures through an approval process.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<h3>Major on-water marinas</h3><br>
<p>By quad:</p><br>
<p>South-West/Central</p><br>
<p>Eaton Ferry Marina (Morningstar), Littleton, NC</p><br>
<p>South-East</p><br>
<p>Stonehouse Timber Lodge, Littleton, NC</p><br>
<p>Outdoor World, Littleton, NC</p><br>
<p>North-West</p><br>
<p>Holly Grove Marina, Bracey, VA</p><br>
<p>Americamps, Bracey VA</p><br>
<p>Poplar Point Marine, Bracey, VA</p><br>
<p>North-East</p><br>
<p>Washburn&#39;s Marina, Henrico, NC</p><br>
<p>Lake Gaston Resort, Gasburg, VA</p><br>
<h3>Marine supply and boat dealers</h3><br>
<h3>Boating regulations</h3><br>
<p>The North Carolina part of the lake is controlled by the Wildlife Resources Commission. The Virginia side is regulated by the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries.</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>After many years of court battles, the Virginia Beach area was able to operate an over-70 mi water pipeline from Lake Gaston to Virginia Beach and its surrounding areas for the purpose of providing drinking water.</p><br>
<p>The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatoa for its global effects in 1883, Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 years before present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter, and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815.</p><br>
<p>Volcanoes in Indonesia are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>The most active volcanoes are Kelud and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), while Mount Merapi has erupted more than 80 times. The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth&#39;s Interior has named Mount Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, Indonesia has 127 active volcanoes with about 5 million people have activities within the danger zone. The earthquake and tsunami event of 26 December 2004 is thought to bring disruption to the volcanoes&#39; eruption pattern. The 2010 eruption of Mount Sinabung, which has no recorded eruption since the 1600s, is presented as one possible example of the hypothesis.</p><br>
<p>The word for Mount in Indonesian and many regional languages of the country (such as Javanese) is Gunung. Thus, Mount Merapi for example, is referred to as Gunung Merapi in Indonesian and also in some English-based sites.</p><br>
<h2>Scope</h2><br>
<p>There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.</p><br>
<p>The primary source of the list below is taken from the Volcanoes of the World book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert, in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed. Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth&#39;s Interior publication series. The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia, and some academic resources.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical groups</h2><br>
<h3>Sumatra</h3><br>
<p>The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate. The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake. The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formation of magma chambers beneath the island.</p><br>
<p>Only one of the 35 active volcanoes, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km &times; 30 km Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).</p><br>
<h3>Sunda Strait and Java</h3><br>
<p>The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatoa lying between them. Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large caldera under the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx. 4,800 km away). A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the centre of the caldera in 1930. The other Krakatau islets from the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.</p><br>
<p>Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small craters and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex. Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelud are the most active volcanoes in Java. Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967. Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoes since 1995. Ijen has a unique colourful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH&lt;0.3). There are sulphur mining activities at Ijen, where miners collect highly concentrated sulphur rocks by hand.</p><br>
<p>Note: Height of Krakatau is of Rakata, not of the active Anak Krakatau</p><br>
<h3>Lesser Sunda Islands</h3><br>
<p>The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself. Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island. Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.</p><br>
<h3>Banda Sea</h3><br>
<p>The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands. Three major tectonic plates beneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, have been converging since the Mesozoic epoch. Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly islands, but some are submarine volcanoes.</p><br>
<h3>Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands</h3><br>
<p>Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes). The central part is a high mountainous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretch to the north to Sangihe Islands. The Sangihe Islands mark the border with the Philippines.</p><br>
<h3>Halmahera</h3><br>
<p>Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays. A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore. Gamalama&#39;s island name is Ternate and it has been the centre for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512. Due to its location as the centre for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early 16th century.</p><br>
<h2>Major eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEI are given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted some fatalities.</p><br>
<p>Notes: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flows, lf=lava flows, lm=lahar mudflows, cl=crater lake eruption, ph=phreatic eruption, ld=lava dome extrusion, cc=caldera collapse, se=submarine eruption, fa=fumarole activity, rf=radial fissure eruption.</p><br>
<p>North Lake is a reservoir located in Dallas,Texas, 2 mi southeast of Coppell. North Lake Park is on its southern side.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The lake area was once a large bowl-like valley that was used for farming. Construction on North Lake Dam began in 1956 and the dam was complete in August 1957. Many of the trees where the lake was to be built were cut down, although a few small structures still exist. The reservoir was designed as a cooling reservoir for a Dallas Power and Light Company electric power plant. At that time, the City of Dallas, Texas annexed the land around the power plant and the lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the lake began to be used for fishing as well. Fish did not survive well due to low nutrient levels, so in 1978 the Dallas Parks and Recreation Department began fertilizing the water and stocking it with bass. The City of Irving, Texas leased land south of the lake as a park in the 1980s and 1990s. North Lake Park was popular with personal watercraft enthusiasts and provided a runway for radio-controlled aircraft. The owner of the lake, power company TXU, turned down offers in 2000 to sell the land to the cities of Coppell, Texas or Irving, Texas. Irving and Coppell were not willing to fund permanent facilities for the park as TXU granted access to the land only on a short-term lease. The park closed in 2000, ending all recreational use of the lake. The lake was thought to be closed because of a high concentration of amoebas from the temperature of the plant&#39;s water output. A small dock and personal watercraft holding area were present in the fifth cove down.</p><br>
<h2>Development Controversy</h2><br>
<p>The Billingsley Company, a Texas land developer, purchased land south of the lake in 2004. Lucy Billingsley, daughter of Trammell Crow, announced her intention to build up to 10,000 living units on the land. The area is officially in the city of Dallas but is part of the Coppell Independent School District. Officials in Coppell, Texas and Irving, Texas strongly opposed the plan due to increased automobile traffic and the costs of building and maintaining new schools. After three years of litigation, the parties reached a settlement in 2008 that will allow development on the land. Coppell residents approved a bond measure in 2007, part of which would be used to fund the construction of new schools. The Subprime mortgage crisis will likely postpone Billingsley&#39;s plans to develop the land until 2013. The lake is slowly being drained to about 13 feet deep, and the lake will be dredged as well as altered to meet the plan requirements if it is approved. Currently, the trees around the lake are being cut down.</p><br>
<h2>Dam and reservoir</h2><br>
<p>North Lake has an embankment dam, which overflows to a chute spillway. The dam had a leak in the North-east part of the dam, which was later patched. Coppell is lowering the water level, which will permanently stay at about 13 feet after 2012. Behind the dam is a low swamp area and a new residential development zone.</p><br>
<h2>Islands and water</h2><br>
<p>Several islands are located on the lake, however, most of them are submerged at the regular pool level. The largest island, which is above water, has a shoreline of about 325 feet.The bottom of the lake is generally sandy, with some occasional mud. When the park was opened, a large floating water ski ramp was placed in the center of the lake. Several no-ski buoys were placed in the south-west cove because the shallow depth of the cove presented a safety hazard. Some vegetation has been known to be present, although not enough to sustain fish. Coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) was present at one time, but the sandy bottom made it hard for it to survive. The lake is fed by rain and run-off through the shallow valleys, but mostly by Grapevine Creek, a small stream nearly always flowing into the lake. The stream is located in the south-western cove. The only boat ramp on the lake is on a small road facing Belt Line Rd. The boat ramp had to be discontinued because of the uneven surface of ground it was on and the unstable ground around it.</p><br>
<p>Mountain Creek Lake is a reservoir located 8 mi southwest of downtown Dallas, Texas  in the Mountain Creek area of the city. It is located south of SH 180, west of Spur 408, north of I-20, and east of FM 1382. The defunct Naval Air Station Dallas , now an Armed Forces Reserve Center, is located on the northern shore of the lake. Mountain Creek Lake Park is on the lake&#39;s southeastern and southwestern edges.</p><br>
<p>There is currently a ban on eating any fish out of this lake due to high contamination levels of PCBs. This is due to the use of airplane fuels and other toxic chemicals throughout the history of Hensley Field.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction on Mountain Creek Dam began in 1929 and the dam was complete in early 1937. The reservoir was designed as a cooling reservoir for a Dallas Power and Light Company electric power plant.</p><br>
<p>The original permit for the lake suggested a capacity of 40,000 acre.ft, but the capacity in 1992 was only 22,840 acre.ft due to heavy siltation.</p><br>
<p>Richmond Hill in Richmond, London is a hill that rises gently on its northern side from the ancient Thames meadowlands around the site of Richmond Palace up to and slightly beyond the Richmond Gate entrance to Richmond Park, the former royal hunting grounds enclosed by Charles I. The descent southwestwards from this point back down to the upstream meadows is noticeably steeper, although the down gradient is less marked on its southerly and easterly progress through the park itself. Richmond Hill is also the name of the road  that runs from Richmond town centre to the top of the hill, and is one-way up the hill along its northern part.</p><br>
<p>This renowned hill offers the only view in England to be protected by an Act of Parliament – the Richmond, Ham and Petersham Open Spaces Act passed in 1902 – to protect the land on and below Richmond Hill and thus preserve the fine foreground views to the west and south. Immortalised in paintings by Sir Joshua Reynolds and J. M. W. Turner, it was described by Sir Walter Scott as "an unrivalled landscape". It was this view that inspired the name of Richmond, Virginia, after colonial city founder William Byrd II noticed a curve in the James River that remarkably resembled this meander of Thames.</p><br>
<p>The scenic panorama may be viewed from Terrace Walk, laid out near the top of the hill in the 18th century. This promenade surmounts the Terrace Gardens and both are Grade II* listed in Historic England&#39;s Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England.</p><br>
<p>As the town of Richmond developed from its founding in the early 16th century, after Henry VII had established Richmond Palace, the attributes of the hill naturally attracted desirable residential and commercial development – with the result that many substantial properties came and went on the hill over the centuries, some of them with famous or notable persons as owners or occupiers. That situation is still in vogue today.</p><br>
<p>The original homes on Richmond Hill were built in what is now The Vineyard, including Clarence House, Halford House, Michel&#39;s Almshouses and Vineyard House.</p><br>
<p>Oat Mountain is a peak of the Santa Susana Mountains overlooking the San Fernando Valley  to the south and southeast. Oat Mountain is the highest peak in the Santa Susana Mountains of California. The Los Angeles district of Chatsworth is to the south of the mountain. There are many microwave relay antennas as well as Doppler weather equipment at Oat Mountain. SoCal Gas has several wells in the area as well.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Oat Mountain is a particularly Sub-Mediterranean climate area in the summer but can get very cold in the winter. During the early months in January-March, small to large amounts of snow will fall and can accumulate up to 6". In April through the September tempatures can reach triple digits as heat waves move through the area. Occasionally, a stray shower or thunderstorm moves over the area giving some rain for the wildlife of the Santa Susana Mountains. In fall and winter tempatures can drop over 40 degrees over night and snow once again is possible.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Wildlife in the area is very sparse in summer months (though occasionally a bear can be spotted). Oat Mountain has typically the same type of flora and fauna found elsewhere in the Mountain range. Mountain lions are particularly common in the region and can be seen almost all year round along with birds like the turkey vulture and the canadian goose.</p><br>
<p>Vegetation is not very diverse on the mountain. The mountain is usually covered in brown grass and oats in the summer but during heavy periods of rain the mountain is usually green and contains more wildlife.</p><br>
<h2>Human Interference</h2><br>
<p>Oat Mountain has had many major problems in modern times starting in 1971 with the construction of 2 missile sites called "The Nike Missile Test Site(s)". Since then it was heavily contaminated and debris and abandoned buildings litter that area.</p><br>
<p>In 2015 a story made headlines when a gas leak was reported at one of the 7 oil fields littering the natural areas of the mountain. The Aliso Canyon Oil Field was involved in this situation. Many people reported nose bleeds, strong headaches, (etc.). That same year the oil field was shut down and taken to court. As of August 2017 the oil field is scheduled to reopen but may be taken to the city reigional court in Los Angeles, California or to the federal court in Sacramento.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking and Destinations</h2><br>
<p>Oat Mountain has many hiking trails and scenic destinations to offer. One of the main hikes takes you up the San Fernando Valley side of the mountain and has 4 different connecting trails. One of these takes you up to the notorious Nike Missile Site which is has many abandoned buildings, vehicles, and rubble surrounding it. One expert route up the mountain follows through the backbone of the mountain in Santa Clarita but is very hard in the fact that it is very forested. The last trail is a 16 mile hike between Rocky Peak and Oat Mountain</p><br>
<p>The Lions are a pair of pointed peaks  along the North Shore Mountains in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. They can be seen from much of the Greater Vancouver area, as far as Robert Burnaby Park in East Burnaby, south to parts of Surrey, and from the west on the Howe Sound Islands and the Sunshine Coast. Along with the Lions Gate Bridge named in their honour, these twin summits have become one of the most recognizable Vancouver landmarks. The city&#39;s BC Lions CFL football team is also named in their honour. Lions Gate Entertainment which was founded in Vancouver in July, 1997 is also named for the peaks.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Lions are composed of hornblende diorite, the oldest plutonic rock on the West Coast of Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking and rock climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>Hikers can climb up to the ridge between the East and West Lion peaks using either the Binkert Trail leading up from Lions Bay, or the Howe Sound Crest Trail. The Binkert Trail, named after Paul Binkert of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club, is one of the most popular in the Lower Mainland. Hiking to the ridge from Lions Bay takes approximately four hours and gains 1,280 m in elevation. Most hikers stop there as both the East and West Lion peaks require rock climbing equipment and expertise. The East Lion is out-of-bounds for climbing as it is located in the Greater Vancouver watershed.</p><br>
<h2>Early ascents</h2><br>
<p>According, to an article by Steven Threndyle in The Greater Vancouver Book, "the earliest recorded climb of the West Lion in 1889 happened almost by accident. A group of hunters following a herd of goats found themselves at the top with no place to go but down. The hunting party was guided by Squamish First Nations Chief Joe Capilano. One of the members of the hunting team was Doctor Henry Bell-Irving, who asked Chief Capilano if he could time one of the chief&#39;s young natives to see how long it would take him to run from the base of the West Lion to the summit. The youth stripped completely naked, made the round trip ascent and descent in under 20 minutes.</p><br>
<p>With its steep granitic face, the East Lion was believed to be impossible to scale. That did not deter John Latta and his two brothers from setting out to climb the East Lion in 1903. Hearing that climbers often used ropes for mountaineering ascents, they packed one along but actually had no idea of how to use it. Their technique was to grasp the small shrubs and bushes growing out of the cracks in the rock. The Latta brothers also climbed the West Lion on their way out.</p><br>
<h2>"The Sisters"</h2><br>
<p>The indigenous Squamish people named these two prominent peaks "Chichiyúy Elxwíkn" (translates as Twin Sisters). These mountains remain sacred for their legal marker of a peace treaty, family lineage histories, and spiritual value. The two peaks were transformed by the Sky Brothers, or Transformers, after twin sisters that had married with Haida twins created the path for the war to end between the Squamish and Haida people. The families that made the Peace Treaty and married together still live in the Squamish and Haida Nations. Sometime around 1890, Judge John Hamilton Gray proposed that Canada rename the mountain peaks to lions couchant from heraldry.</p><br>
<p>The Graycliff estate was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright  and was built between 1926 and 1931. It is located about 20 minutes south of downtown Buffalo, New York, at 6472 Old Lake Shore Road in Derby, New York. Sometimes called "The Jewel on the Lake", Graycliff is sited on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie with sweeping views of downtown Buffalo and the Ontario shore.</p><br>
<p>Graycliff is one of the most ambitious and extensive summer estates Wright ever designed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Graycliff estate was the summer home of Isabelle R. Martin (1869–1945) and her husband, Buffalo entrepreneur Darwin D. Martin (1865–1935). Graycliff was the second of two complexes Frank Lloyd Wright designed for the couple, the first being the Martin House Complex, their city residence. By the time of Graycliff’s commission, Wright and the Martins had been personal friends as well as clients for over twenty years. Between the time of the completion of the Martin House Complex and the construction of Graycliff grew a great long-term friendship, to the extent that the Martins provided financial assistance and other support to Wright as his career unfolded.</p><br>
<p>In the early years of their long relationship, Darwin Martin was actively involved with the selection of Frank Lloyd Wright as the architect for the Larkin Administration Building, Wright&#39;s first major commercial project. Martin was an executive with the Larkin Company, and Wright also designed houses in Buffalo for fellow Larkin Company executives William R. Heath and Walter V. Davidson.</p><br>
<p>Isabelle R. Martin was the client of record for Graycliff, and it was designed by Wright for her pleasure.</p><br>
<p>Graycliff is one of only five of Frank Lloyd Wright’s designs that were built between 1925 and 1935, and the only Wright designed structure built between Taliesin (1914) and Fallingwater (1936) using stone. Wright believed stone to be the only true building material and may be why he insisted the Martins incorporate it at Graycliff. Graycliff is considered to be one of Wright&#39;s most important mid-career works in his Organic Style.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Graycliff is a complex of three buildings integrated within an 8.5 acre landscape. It is sited high on a bluff with views of Lake Erie across to Ontario. The buildings, in Wright’s Organic Architecture style, are set amidst extensive grounds and gardens also designed by Wright.</p><br>
<p>The largest building, the Isabelle R. Martin House, is perhaps most remarkable for its two stone veneered sections framing a central pavilion-like center of transparent glass walls, allowing visitors to actually see through the building itself to the lake beyond, revolutionary for a 1926 design. It also features spacious cantilevered balconies, expansive terraces, and “ribbons” of windows that allow the experience of nature from within and through the house. On especially clear days the spray of Niagara Falls is visible through the framed opening created by the cantilevered upper bridge and the stone veneered massing at each end of the home.</p><br>
<p>The Foster House was originally designed as a garage with an apartment above for the chauffeur and his family. In 1929 the Martins owned a Pierce-Arrow touring car as well as a Detroit Electric car. After their first summer in residence, the Martins asked Wright to alter and expand the building. Once complete, the Martin’s daughter Dorothy, together with her husband James Foster and their children Margaret and Darwin Martin Foster, spent many happy summers in residence. Like the Martin House, the Foster House has strong horizontal lines echoing the lake beyond, cantilevered balconies, and numerous windows.</p><br>
<p>The smallest building of the complex is known as the Heat Hut.</p><br>
<p>Garden walls, composed of the same stone and stucco as the Foster and Martin Houses, enhance the horizontal planes of the architecture. The gardens and grounds feature water elements designed by Wright, including a porte cochere that extends from Martin House, cantilevering beyond its stone pier supports over a stone basin from which water flows into a large irregularly shaped pool. This was intended to create an illusion of the lake flowing through the house. On the west side, a broad esplanade connects the terrace to the cliff and lake. The esplanade was designed to carry water, pumped from Lake Erie, down its length and over the bluffs, completing the illusion of water flowing through. Deemed financially extravagant this feature was halted after only the esplanade itself was completed. Other architectural features of the landscape include a sunken garden, a hidden garden, and stone walls in a “waterfall” pattern. Not surprisingly, it was Darwin Martin who first introduced Wright to Niagara Falls, less than forty miles to the north.</p><br>
<p>The extensive 8.5 acre of grounds and gardens were also designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, with one of the few, if not only, landscape designs in his own hand. These include a tennis court designed by Wright, as well as trees and shrubs designed to complement the architecture. Additional significant design-work was done by Ellen Biddle Shipman, one of the early and renowned women landscape architects, and one of the creators of the Arts & Crafts and American Craftsman style landscape design, supplemented those of Wright with colorful flowers and a picking garden.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Although the family lost much of its fortune due to the Great Depression and was forced to abandon the city house in 1937, they kept Graycliff, and returned annually until 1943.</p><br>
<p>The property was purchased from the Martin family by the Piarists, a Roman Catholic teaching order, in 1951. The Piarist Fathers, from Hungary, established a boarding school on the grounds, as well as Calasanctius, a private high school for gifted children in Buffalo, named after the order&#39;s founder. Although they added two structures to Wright’s original design, all Wright-designed buildings were left intact. Eventually enrollment dwindled and the schools closed; the number of priests in residence also declined dramatically. Finally in late 1997, the Piarists decided they could no longer afford to maintain the property, and put it up for sale.</p><br>
<p>Soon after, a grassroots group of individuals purchased the property, which was threatened with destruction due to its prime lakeside location and attractiveness to private developers. The group formed the non-profit in order to buy the property, restore it to its original condition, and open it to the public. This effort, aided by volunteers from throughout the community, has undertaken extensive restoration, both to remove the non-Wright additions and to restore the now eighty-year-old buildings, and has created a schedule of public tours.</p><br>
<p>The Graycliff Conservancy is the recipient of a Save America’s Treasures grant from the US Department of the Interior, and has received many awards for its work. Graycliff is now a New York State Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Other buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright in the Buffalo area</h2><br>
<p>Darwin D. Martin House</p><br>
<p>William R. Heath House</p><br>
<p>Walter V. Davidson House</p><br>
<p>Blue Sky Mausoleum</p><br>
<p>Fontana Boathouse (Slovak text)</p><br>
<p>Haslington Hall is a country house located in open countryside 1 km to the east of the village of Haslington, Cheshire, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>It is difficult to trace the early history of the hall, because all early documents relating to the hall were kept in a bank vault in Manchester. They were destroyed in 1940 during World War II bombing of Manchester.</p><br>
<p>The manor of Haslington was acquired by the Vernon family as a consequence of the 14th-century marriage of Sir Thomas Vernon to Joan Lostock, heiress of Haslington. The house was built by Admiral Sir Francis Vernon in 1545, and contains parts of the original medieval manor house, which are said to date back to 1480.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The house is built partly in timber framing and partly in brick, with a slate roof. It has two storeys and six bays. The timber framed areas are decorated with herringbone bracing, quatrefoils and cusped concave-sided lozenges. The rear elevation is mainly in brickwork.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<p>Previous residents include Colonel H Watts and Mrs Lillian Watts, Mrs Watts was the first president of the Haslington and Crewe Green branch of the Women’s Institute founded in 1944. Confusion has arisen in several publications with Mrs Madge Watt, a Canadian lady who founded the Women’s Institute in Britain in 1915; she returned to Canada in 1919 and is unlikely ever to have visited Haslington.</p><br>
<p>After the first World War Air Commodore Dame Felicity Peake, the first director of the Women&#39;s Royal Air Force, daughter of Colonel H Watts, spent much of her youth living in the house. The house was bought in 1970 by the millionaire Tony Vernon who established Murray Vernon, one of the largest independent dairy companies in the country. He restored the house over the next thirty years. Following his death in 2005 the house was sold for £3m to Isaq and Nina Raja. It is now part of TailorMade Venues, an exclusive collection of venues for weddings and private functions.</p><br>
<p>The Pasterze at approximately 8.4 kilometers  in length, is the longest glacier in Austria and in the Eastern Alps. It lies within the Glockner Group of the High Tauern mountain range in Carinthia, directly beneath Austria&#39;s highest mountain, the Grossglockner. The length of the glacier currently decreases about 10 m  each year. Its volume has diminished by half since the first measurements in 1851.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The glacier reaches from its head, the Johannisberg peak at 3,453 m, to 2,100 m above sea level (m AA). The Pasterze forms the source region of the Möll river, a left tributary of the Drava. Its waters also feed the Margaritze reservoir, used to generate electricity at the Kaprun hydropower plant north of the Alpine crest.</p><br>
<p>The name Pasterze is possibly derived from pasti, "pasture". Indeed the detection of wood, peat and pollen in the area of the retreating glacier indicate vegetation and also the use as pastureland during the last interglacial period until about 1,500 BC.</p><br>
<p>The surrounding area was purchased by the German and Austrian Alpine Club in 1918; today the glacier is part of the High Tauern National Park. The Pasterze is a major tourist destination, accessible via the scenic Grossglockner High Alpine Road and a funicular railway that leads down to its margin. Since its opening in 1963, the edge of the glacier has retracted about 300 m from the lower station.</p><br>
<p>Lake Sils  is a lake in the Upper Engadine valley, Grisons, Switzerland. It takes its name from the village of Sils im Engadin. The lake lies at an altitude of 1,797 metres above sea level, between Maloja Pass and Lake Silvaplana. Several mountains over 3,000 metres overlook the lake, notably Piz Corvatsch, Piz Grevasalvas and Piz da la Margna. The lake&#39;s drainage basin culminates at Piz Fora  and comprises the Vadrec da Fedoz glacier.</p><br>
<p>With a surface area of 4.1 km², Lake Sils is the largest lake of the Engadine. It is also the largest natural lake in the Alps lying above 1,000 metres. The lake was formed by a prehistoric landslide dam, similarly to Lake Silvaplana.</p><br>
<p>The wooded Chastè peninsula extends into the lake at its north-eastern end. At the end of the peninsula there is a plaque to Friedrich Nietzsche with a passage from Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Near the peninsula is located the wooded island of Chaviolas, the largest in Lake Sils. Annually, in winter, the cross-country Engadin Skimarathon crosses the lake, starting at its edge in the Maloja Palace.</p><br>
<p>Boat connections run from end of June to end of September, making Lake Sils one of the highest lake in Europe with public transport boat route.</p><br>
<p>The largest villages on Lake Sils are Sils im Engadin and Maloja (part of Bregaglia), located respectively at the eastern and western ends of the lake. Other hamlets are Cadlägh, Isola and Plaun da Lej.</p><br>
<p>Llangorse Lake  is the largest natural lake in South Wales, and is situated in the Brecon Beacons National Park, near to the town of Brecon and the village of Llangors.</p><br>
<p>The lake is famous for its coarse fishing (particularly pike), watersports, the afanc (nicknamed Gorsey) and has the only example of a crannog in Wales. Llangorse Lake is also one of the most mentioned sites in Welsh folklore. It is a site of international conservation importance.</p><br>
<p>Due to the lakes long history of human activity, it has been known by several different names during its history, both in the Welsh language and in English: other names include the lakes original Welsh name, Llyn Syfaddon/Syfaddan, and Brycheiniog Mere. The name Llangorse Lake is comparatively recent.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Llangorse Lake is a eutrophic glacial lake with a 5 mi circumference covering an area of 327 acre. The lake is 1 mi long and 505 ft above sea level. The lake is sited between the basins of the River Wye to the north and the River Usk to the south, and occupies a glacially scoured rock basin partly enhanced by morainic debris. The Afon Llynfi provides the main input of water into the lake and continues as the lake overflow stream. The lake has a maximum depth of 7.5m.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>The lake is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and has long been regarded as a place where fish and birds are found in unusually high numbers. Gerald of Wales (Giraldus Cambrensis) mentioned the abundance of waterfowl in his topographical work, The Description of Wales in the 12th century. It is a Special Area of Conservation (under the EU Habitats Directive) as an example of a natural nutrient-rich lake with pondweeds.</p><br>
<p>The supposed largest pike caught by rod in the UK was caught in Llangorse Lake in 1846 by O. Owen and supposedly weighed 68 lbs, but this is unsubstantiated. If true, it would have been the largest pike in the world. The largest pike in the UK was actually caught from Llandegfedd Reservoir near Pontypool and weighed 46 lbs. More recently the skull of a pike of unknown weight, though undoubtedly large (35–40+ lb), was found on the shores of the lake in 2004; it was taken away by the Environment Agency for age testing.</p><br>
<p>The Llangasty Nature Reserve forms an important protected area around the lake&#39;s boundary. The lake is a habitat of the Scarce Blue-tailed Damselfly (Ishnura pumilio). In May 2011 hundreds of water voles were released near Llangorse Lake in an ongoing programme to try to restore their numbers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Crannog</h3><br>
<p>The crannog is a small artificial island about 40 m from the north shore. It is constructed of massive planks of oak behind which was built a dwelling platform formed from layers of stone, soil and brushwood. It was investigated by archaeologists from the National Museum of Wales between 1989 and 1993. Finds included a high quality textile and a bronze hinge from an 8th&ndash;9th century reliquary decorated in a style similar to that seen in Ireland. The 1993 dig was joined by the TV series Time Team and featured in series one, episode four in 1994. In 2005, works were carried out to protect the island from erosion.</p><br>
<h3>Dugout boat</h3><br>
<p>In 1925, archaeologists discovered a virtually complete dugout boat. Radiocarbon dating indicates that it originated from the 9th century.</p><br>
<h3>Fort</h3><br>
<p>In 916 Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, sent an army into Brycheiniog to avenge the murder of the Mercian abbot Ecbryht and his companions. The Mercian army seized and burnt the royal fort on Llangorse Lake, and took the Queen of Brycheiniog and thirty-three others captive.</p><br>
<h2>Llangorse Lake in literature</h2><br>
<p>As Lake Leucara, the lake (and surrounding area) features in the works of Raymond Williams, who wrote People of the Black Mountains detailing the lives of ordinary people in the area at intervals from 30,000 years ago through to mediaeval times.</p><br>
<p>In his diary of the 1870s, Francis Kilvert noted several visits to Llangorse Lake, including a July 1878 outing in the company of his father, when the pair caught a brace of perch in an hour.</p><br>
<h2>Gorsey, the Afanc of Llangorse Lake</h2><br>
<p>The earliest known surviving literary reference to the afanc or lake monster of Llangorse is in a poem by the 15th century Welsh poet or bard, Lewys Glyn Cothi (English translation by John Rhys):</p><br>
<p>The afanc would have been well known in local folklore at the time of the composition of the poem.</p><br>
<p>Oll Lewis, an ecologist and cryptozoologist at the Centre for Fortean Zoology, has been studying the Afanc of Llangorse Lake for several years, and has proposed that it may represent sightings of the abnormally large pike of the lake. Adrian Lloyd Jones of the Welsh Beaver Project believes that afanc stories in Wales are folk memories of the presence of beavers. (The modern Welsh word for beaver is afanc).</p><br>
<p>Lake Silvaplana  is a lake in the Upper-Engadine valley of Grisons, Switzerland. It takes its name from the village of Silvaplana. The lake is also connected to the nearby Lej da Champfèr. Together with its larger neighbour, Lake Sils, it is among the largest lakes of the Grisons. Lake Silvaplana is overlooked by several mountains over 3,000 metres, notably Piz Corvatsch, Piz Julier and Piz Surlej. The lake&#39;s drainage basin culminates at Piz Corvatsch  and comprises several glaciers, the largest being the Vadret dal Tremoggia.</p><br>
<p>A campsite is located on the Northern end of the lake. The lake is also used heavily for sports, such as kitesurfing and windsurfing in the summertime. In the winter, once the lake freezes, it is used for cross country skiing, walking trails, and kitesurfing on snow, with the famous Engadin Skimarathon crossing the lake annually. The rare occasion of black ice also brings ice skaters to the lake.</p><br>
<p>In Ecce Homo, Friedrich Nietzsche recounts the moment he first conceived his idea of the Eternal Recurrence while walking through the woods beside Lake Silvaplana in August 1881.</p><br>
<p>Pfäffikersee  is a lake in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, near the town of Pfäffikon. It is 2.5 km long and 1.3 km wide at the middle. The lake was created in the last ice age when a moraine blocked off the ability for the lake to empty north towards Winterthur. There is also a hiking trail around the lake that people often bike and walk on, and the area is considered protected lands, among them the Robenhauser Ried and the prehistoric settlement Wetzikon–Robenhausen, discovered and researched by Jakob Messikommer , which became a serial site of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps. In Roman era, along Pfäffikersee there was a Roman road from the vicus Centum Prata  on Obersee–Lake Zürich via Vitudurum  to Tasgetium  to the Rhine. To secure this important transport route, the Irgenhausen Castrum was built.</p><br>
<p>Watauga Lake, located east of Elizabethton, Tennessee, is the local name of the Watauga Reservoir created by the Tennessee Valley Authority  with the 1948 completion of the TVA Watauga Dam.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee National Forest surrounds both the Tennessee Valley Authority Watauga Reservoir and Wilbur Reservoir in an area of northeast Tennessee that TVA describes as being located "...in some of the most beautiful country in the Tennessee River watershed."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of Watauga Dam began in early 1942 but was curtailed later that year in favor of other World War II building efforts. Work on TVA Watauga Dam resumed in 1946, and finished at the end of 1948, impounding both the Watauga River and Elk River for the purposes of flood, hydropower generation and downstream navigation on the Tennessee River and Reservoir system.</p><br>
<p>Watauga Lake covers parts of Johnson and Carter Counties.</p><br>
<p>Another much smaller nearby lake that is not part of the TVA system is the Ripshin Lake located 6 mi SW of Roan Mountain.</p><br>
<p>According to lake expert Holly C Ward, Watauga Lake is the third cleanest in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Specifications</h2><br>
<p>According to the 2004 TVA River and Reservoir Operations Study, Watauga Lake is approximately 16.3 mi long, with 104.9 mi of shoreline. At the TVA summertime water level target "full pool", the lake surface covers 6,430 acres (26 km²) and the estimated depth of Watauga Lake is 265 feet (81 m) at the dam. At full pool, Watauga&#39;s elevation is the highest of all TVA lakes at 1,959 feet (597 m) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Watauga Lake is regularly released by TVA schedule into Wilbur Reservoir (Wilbur Lake) and impounded by the TVA Wilbur Dam. Water levels in TVA Watauga Reservoir vary about 9 ft in normal years to provide for seasonal flood storage and for the augmentation of flows of water during drier seasons. Watauga has a flood-storage capacity of 152,829 acre.ft.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>More than half of Watauga Lake&#39;s shoreline lies within the Cherokee National Forest and cannot be developed. Recreational uses include boating, fishing, water-skiing, and camping. There is no horsepower limit or speed limit for boats operating on the lake. Several fee-based public and private boat launch ramps provide access on the Hampton side of the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>The release of impounded water from both TVA Watauga Dam and TVA Wilbur Dam provides additional downstream riverine recreational opportunities such as whitewater rafting, trout fishing, and kayaking on the Watauga River.</p><br>
<p>Several Cherokee National Forest recreations are location along its shores.</p><br>
<p>Houseboat owners have been conducting a large annual July 4 Boat Parade on Watauga Lake since 2001. The Watauga Lake boat parade starts at 2:00 p.m.</p><br>
<h2>Connection with USA Interstate Highway System</h2><br>
<p>(Travel to Watauga Dam and Watauga Dam Overlook):</p><br>
<p>Tennessee State Route 67 to Elizabethton, then left at intersection of</p><br>
<p>briefly on US321/US19E across Gilbert Peters Bridge over the Watauga River and onto</p><br>
<p>(Travel to Watauga Lake opposite side of reservoir from Watauga Dam and Watauga Dam Overlook):</p><br>
<p>Tennessee State Route 67 to Elizabethton, then left on</p><br>
<p>Tennessee State Route 67 to Hampton and Watauga Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Influence of weather</h2><br>
<p>The Francis Marion Stokes Fourplex is a historic residential building located in the Northwest district of Portland, Oregon, United States.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Fourplex is an example of Mediterranean Revival Style architecture. It is laid out on a rectangular plan with each floor divided into an east and a west apartment. The building is clad in smooth stucco typical of the Mediterranean style, and has a flat roof. The south elevation is symmetrical and features an enclosed entry porch having a pointed horseshoe arch in a Moorish style, decorated with wooden false beams.</p><br>
<p>Above the entry porch is a rectangular salient holding a pair of arched windows divided by a spiraled-column mullion. The windows are inset in a deep blind arch. Both the porch and the salient have tiled pent roofs. Flanking the entry porch are large tri-partate windows surrounded by highly decorated frames; above each of these is a pair of blind arches with decorative ceramic tiles inset in tympanums. Each arch has a double hung window, one over, and a corbelled wrought-iron balconet. The east and west sides of the building have stuccoed balconies at the first and second floor, chimneys servicing both levels, and flanking windows. The north elevation (rear) is fairly plain, except for an interesting arrangement of windows and a rear door.</p><br>
<h2>Building facts</h2><br>
<p>The Francis Marion Stokes Fourplex is located at 2253 N.W. Pettygrove St, in the same block as historic Pettygrove House, a Victorian house built in 1892 and former home to Francis Pettygrove, the man who named Portland as a prize in a coin-toss.</p><br>
<p>The Fourplex is located on a 6,000 ft&sup2; lot. Each of the two floors has 1,964 ft&sup2; of living space divided into two apartments per floor.</p><br>
<h2>The Architect</h2><br>
<p>Francis Marion Stokes designed the building in 1926 for Esther Kuhn of Portland, Oregon. Stokes became owner of the building the same year and lived in it, in Unit #2, from 1929 until his death in 1975. Most of Stokes work, which had a considerable influence on Portlands architecture, was completed during the 46 years that he lived in the Fourplex.</p><br>
<h2>National Register</h2><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in February 1996. Prior to its listing on the Register, the Fourplex was also known as the Kuhn Apartments.</p><br>
<p>The St. Johns Post Office is a historic building located in the Cathedral Park neighborhood near St. Johns, Portland, Oregon, United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Post Office Department acquired the building site in 1931, and construction was completed in 1933. The building was entered on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. It was purchased 1991 to become the Portland Bahá&#39;í Center.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The St. Johns Post Office is an example of a small community post office constructed in the 20th Century Georgian style (also Colonial Revival-style) typical of Depression Era federal architecture. The building exhibits classical symmetry and proportion, yet is a transitional building in that it lacks the archaeological detail of classically inspired federal architecture of the Beaux-Arts tradition. The building&#39;s Georgian style is suggested in the detailing of the arched Palladian windows and termination of the facade with a molded frieze and cornice.</p><br>
<p>The building is also unique among small Oregon post offices in that it was designed by a local architect, Francis Marion Stokes, who designed several architecturally prominent buildings in the Portland area, several of which are included in the city&#39;s historic resource inventory.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<p>The buildings lobby features two murals with both a local and state significance. They are titled "Development of St. Johns" and were completed in 1936 by John Ballator under the auspices of the Treasury Departments Section of Painting and Sculpture. The murals depict the development of the neighborhood with significant historical events and prominent citizens. Ballator was an artist from Topeka who was born in Portland in 1909. He attended the University of Oregon and the Yale School of Fine Arts.</p><br>
<p>Yelcho Lake is a large fjord-shaped lake located in Chilean Patagonia, in southern Palena province of Los Lagos Region, Chile. The lake receives the waters of the Futaleufu River at its southern tip, near the tiny settlement of Puerto Ramirez. The river then flows northward through mountainous and glaciated terrain, until it outflows via the Yelcho River north-west and empties into Gulf of Corcovado, near Chaitén. The lake is a used for fly fishing, and several lodges and hotels operate on its shores. Yelcho Lake is quite remote and is most frequently accessed via the town of Chaitén to the north, either by hiring a small charter flight from the city of Puerto Montt or by a series of long ferry rides from Puerto Montt or from the port of Quellón on the island of Chiloe on the other side of the Golf of Corcovado.</p><br>
<p>The section of the Carretera Austral which runs along the north-western shore of Yelcho Lake is currently being paved, which should be ready by 2016. On the southern shore of the lake there is a secondary road which later forks to access the towns of Palena and Futaleufu.</p><br>
<p>Ōta River is a 103 kilometer- long river as its main stream from Mt. Kanmuri . The Ōta River is the major river that flows through Hiroshima Prefecture and empties into the Seto Inland Sea. The river descends through steep topography, with hydroelectric power plants situated along the river.</p><br>
<p>Ōta River has numerous of tributaries around the upper streams and join with Tone River and Misasa River in Asakita-ku, Hiroshima and branch into Kyōbashi River, Tenma River and Motoyasu River in the delta area of Hiroshima. Ōta River made the Hiroshima Delta. It is spanned by the Aioi Bridge, the aiming point for the Atomic bombing of Hiroshima.</p><br>
<p>Ōta River runs through Kitahiroshima, Akiota, Akitakata, Higashihiroshima and Hiroshima. The size of its catchment area is 1,710 km².</p><br>
<p>Swinsty Reservoir is a reservoir in the Washburn valley north of Otley and west of Harrogate in Yorkshire, England. Construction began in 1871 and was completed in 1878. The capacity is about 866 million gallons, with a surface area of 63 hectares. It can be found from the A59 road.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir is below and directly adjoining Fewston Reservoir. The area around the reservoirs is popular with walkers.</p><br>
<h2>Before the reservoir</h2><br>
<p>Beneath the waters of the reservoir are the remains of New Hall, originally a home to the Fairfax family, whose members included Ferdinando Fairfax and the poet Edward Fairfax. Women in the nearby village of Timble were twice tried at York for witchcraft on the accusation of Edward, who suspected them of possessing his two daughters. Neighbouring Fewston Reservoir covers another Fairfax family home, Cragg Hall.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir was built by the Leeds Waterworks Company, and employed a labour force of around 300 men under the management of Robert Brooks, previously an assistant at the construction of Lindley Wood Reservoir. Consultants were Thomas Hawksley of Westminster and Edward Filliter of Leeds.</p><br>
<p>Work on the construction of the reservoir began in 1871. "The Huts", as they were known locally, were constructed to house the workforce, in part using materials from a water mill dismantled in the valley. The bulk of the materials for the dam itself came to Starbeck by rail. From there they were, at first, transported to the site using a steam traction engine pulling wagons. However, by 1872 this practice was put to an end due to the damage being caused to the Turnpike road, now the A59, and from then on materials were transported by contractors.</p><br>
<p>At the site, a narrow gauge railway was constructed, and two locomotives purchased, the first arriving in 1873 and the second in 1875.</p><br>
<p>The impact of the construction work was considerable for local residents, in ways both positive and negative. In his diaries, local man John Dickinson mentions the waterworks band coming with their music on Christmas Day, a visit to a "Magic Lantern performance at The Huts" and a waterworks sports day on Swinsty Moor with several hundred in attendance. On the downside, he complains several times of "rough navvies" occupying the local inn at Timble, and expresses the hope they will soon be gone.</p><br>
<p>As work neared completion in 1877, the huts were removed and the filling of the reservoir began. Work was finally completed in 1878.</p><br>
<h2>Design and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir is fed directly from the overflow of neighbouring Fewston Reservoir via a shallow spillway which bypasses Fewston Dam and terminates in a grand stepped cascade of falling water. The culvert under the dam itself terminates in an archway topped on the keystone with an ornate carving of the head of Achelous who stares out over the reservoir itself.</p><br>
<p>The water is held in place by a small dam on the eastern side, and a much larger one at the southern end, beyond which the River Washburn continues its descent to join the River Wharfe.</p><br>
<h2>Swinsty Hall</h2><br>
<p>On the banks of the reservoir stands Swinsty Hall, built in the 17th century. Local legend has it that the hall was built by a man named Robinson, who left nearby Fewston to seek his fortune in London. On arriving there, he found it in the grip of the great plague of 1603–4. Robinson took to looting the houses of the dead and amassed a great fortune with which he returned home, purchased the Swinsty estate, and built Swinsty Hall.</p><br>
<p>The truth appears more mundane – a family named Wood owned the Swinsty estates in the sixteenth century, and Francis Wood undertook to erect a new hall on the estate as part of a marriage contract. Unable to pay for it, he raised a loan from Henry Robinson, and when he got into further financial difficulties in 1590, Robinson foreclosed and took the hall and estates in lieu of the debt.</p><br>
<p>The hall was owned by a succession of Robinsons right up until 1772. At this point, the male Robinson line came to an end and the hall and estate passed to Robert Bramley, husband of Mary Robinson, and later his son John Bramley, and in 1853 John Bramley&#39;s son, also named John. Stone for the construction of Fewston Reservoir was purchased from the Swinsty Hall quarry in 1874, from a Mr Bramley.</p><br>
<p>Most recently it has been owned by former England international footballer Gareth Southgate. It is currently for sale.</p><br>
<p>Kolka Glacier  is a glacier in North Ossetia, Russia, near Mount Kazbek, known for its surging properties. The most recent and the most powerful surge took place on 20 September 2002, resulting in the death of at least 125 people.</p><br>
<h2>Morphology</h2><br>
<p>There are only a small number of glaciers in the Genaldon River&#39;s basin, the largest being Maili at approximately 6.8 km&sup2; in area. The Kolka Glacier, located next to Maili, is a cirque / valley glacier, with some hanging parts.</p><br>
<p>Kolka is fed by avalanches and collapses of firn and ice all year round. Its lowest and highest points are located at 3,000 m and 3,450 m above mean sea level respectively. More than two-thirds of the ablation zone&#39;s surface is covered by a morainal layer up to 1 m thick. This and other features, such as relatively gentle slopes, a deep cirque and the presence of a lateral moraine restricting the ice flow and forcing it to make a sharp turn, makes the glacier very prone to accumulation of subglacial meltwater.</p><br>
<h2>History of surges</h2><br>
<p>Historically, the local population have been well aware of the dangers associated with the glacier, which is evident in the unusual locations of the auls. Most settlements of the Caucasian Mountain valleys were built on the valley floor, however, all the old auls of the Karmadon Valley were built on the valley slopes or even on the crests of the nearby ridges. More recently however, a number of settlements have been built on the valley floor.</p><br>
<h3>1902 surge</h3><br>
<p>The first well-documented surge occurred on July 3, 1902, in the midst of an unusually hot summer, when the mean temperature was 2.7 °С higher than normal. A series of heavy rains occurred in June and early July, filling the river basins with rain and melt water and by the middle of June, a tongue of the Kolka glacier was on the move. Loud crackling was heard in the nearby settlements and, at times, the Genaldon river was turned into a stream of black mud. By the end of June, the heavily cracked glacier tongue was seen in a narrow gorge next to the Maili glacier. The tongue then partially collapsed, temporarily damming the river. A pulp of ice, water and morainal material then formed a mudflow which streamed down the river&#39;s course, stopping near the Tmenikau aul high on the valley slope. The glacier, which was still on the move, then blocked the gorge causing it to fill up with meltwater.</p><br>
<p>A second mudflow surge occurred on July 6 when a 9 km stretch of the valley floor was buried underneath a mass of ice and rocks. Its thickness at times approached 50 m, the scouring of the valley slopes reaching a height of 100 m. The estimated volume of ice that was ejected into the valley, obstructing the gorge, was in excess of 100 million m. The mudflow speed averaged 60–70 km/h, peaking at 100 km/h. At least 32 people were killed.</p><br>
<h3>1969 surge</h3><br>
<p>Another notable surge started on September 28, 1969. Because its onset occurred during a colder season with minimal presence of meltwater in the glaciers basin, the event was not catastrophic. By October 4, Kolkas tongue again reached the Maili glacier, having moved 1.3 km. After a month of relative calm, the glacier was on the move again by the beginning of November. A mass of fractured ice, 100–130 m thick, blocked the Upper Karmadon Springs and moved into the upper parts of the Glenadon valley, travelling at 20–50 m per day. By January 1970 it had stopped but, by then, the glacier had extended its length by 4.1 km and descended 800 m.</p><br>
<h3>2002 surge</h3><br>
<p>The most catastrophic surge to date occurred on September 20, 2002, when a mass of ice, water and rocks streamed down a 4 km stretch of the valley with an icy mudflow travelling a further 12 km. Ice within the debris began to melt almost immediately, creating new lakes and flooding some settlements which, contrary to the old traditions, had been built on the valley floor. The height of the mudflow peaked at 140 m, with the height of the debris near the wall of the Skalisty Ridge reaching 100 m. The village Nuzhnii karmadon, along with several rest houses beside the river were totally obilterated along there was a total of 125 people were killed and many others were injured. Also, the town has never been rebuilt since.</p><br>
<p>The surge resulted in the complete destruction of the glacier leaving behind an empty cirque, a phenomenon not previously observed anywhere else. The large amount of subglacial water resulted in a surge so powerful, that the glacier was practically ejected from its basin. Nonetheless, it reappeared only 2 years later and is currently growing again.</p><br>
<p>The Bridge River Cones, sometimes referred to as the Lillooet Cones and Salal Creek Cones, is the name given to a volcanic field located on the north flank of the upper Bridge River, about 40 km west of the town of Gold Bridge. The cones are in the lee of the Lillooet Icecap and sit astride a group of passes between the Bridge River, which flows W-E to their south, and the Lord River, which flows north to the Taseko Lakes in the Chilcotin District.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Bridge River Cones consist of small trachybasaltic and basaltic eruptive centers. Sham Hill (50.90&deg;N latitude, 123.51&deg;W longitude), a 60 m high steep-sided volcanic plug, is the oldest volcano in the field with a potassium-argon date of one million years. The plug is approximately 300 m wide and its bare glaciated surface, strewn with glacial erratics, consists of large subhorizontal columns formed within the central conduit of an eroded stratovolcano.</p><br>
<p>The Salal Glacier volcanic complex (50.79&deg;N latitude, 123.38&deg;W longitude), with a potassium-argon date of 0.97 to 0.59 million years, contains subaerial tephra and thin scoriaceous flows in the upper part of the pile are surrounded by ice-ponded flows up to 100 m thick.</p><br>
<p>Tuber Hill (50.93&deg;N latitude, 123.44&deg;W longitude), a small basaltic stratovolcano with a potassium-argon date of 0.6 million years, was constructed on the Bridge River upland when neighboring valleys were filled by ice. Where distal flows violated on the glaciers a marginal meltwater lake was created in which less than 150 m of interbedded hyaloclastite, debris flows, and lacustrine tuff were depositied.</p><br>
<p>The youngest volcanic rocks in the Bridge River volcanic field lie east of Tuber Hill and are remnants of valley-filling basalt flows. The age of these valley-filling basalt flows is unknown but the presence of unconsolidated glacial until under the flows suggest they are less than 1,500 years old.</p><br>
<p>The President Street Station in Baltimore, Maryland, is a former train station and railroad terminal. Built in 1849 and opened in February 1850, the station saw the some of the earliest bloodshed of the American Civil War, and was an important rail link during the conflicts. Today, it is the country&#39;s oldest surviving big-city railroad terminal in the United States and is home since its restoration/reconstruction/renovation in April 1997, to the Baltimore Civil War Museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Baltimore and Port Deposit Rail Road (B&PD), founded in 1832, completed a rail line from Baltimore to the western shore of the Susquehanna River in 1837. The railroad’s Baltimore terminus was on the east side of the "Basin" (now known as the Inner Harbor), at the southern end of President Street. The B&PD exchanged freight cars with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), (oldest railroad line in the country - established 1827) which had built a track (along Pratt Street) to the eastern Basin harbor area from its original Mount Clare depot on the western side of the central business district. The B&PD and its merger successor company, the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad (PW&B), transferred passengers to the B&Os first downtown depot at East Pratt and South Charles streets by a horse-drawn car on B&Os connecting track. (The Baltimore City Council prohibited the operation of locomotives on this track for reasons of frightening horses and fears of fires).</p><br>
<p>The PW&B started building its own station at the southwestern corner of President Street with Canton Avenue with train yards, including a roundhouse, shops and freight warehouses of about six square city blocks, extending east along Canton Avenue (later renamed Fleet Street). The Greek Revival-style station opened on February 18, 1850. In addition to the brick head house with a distinctive arched roof, the original station also had a 208 ft long barrel vaulted train shed over the tracks. The PW&B added a similarly styled freight house, adjacent to the south of the passenger station, in 1852.</p><br>
<p>The station was involved in the Baltimore riot of 1861, as Massachusetts state milita troops bound for Washington were being pulled in several connecting horse cars and later marching to the B&O Camden Street Station, ten blocks west and were attacked by an angry mob of Southern and Confederate sympathizers, with a large number of civilians and four soldiers killed and many people wounded in the ensuing melee. On Friday, April 19, 1861, Baltimore Southern sympathizers attacked the passing 6th Massachusetts infantry regiment of the state militia and the "Washington Brigade" of Philadelphia from the Pennsylvania state militia. Both units were heading to the national capital at Washington to reinforce defenses in response to the requests for troops in his proclamation declaring the existence of an insurrection by 16th President Abraham Lincoln after the firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor in South Carolina by newly organized Confederate States military forces a few days earlier.</p><br>
<p>In 1873, the newly organized Union Railroad built a new set of tracks in northeastern Baltimore, connecting the original PW&B main line with the Northern Central Railway (NCRY) going north to York and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The new connection ran through the new Union Tunnel to NCRY’s new Charles Street Station, north of Mount Royal Avenue. (This station was rebuilt twice, in 1911, named as "Union Station" and ultimately renamed "Pennsylvania Station" in the 1920s.). This station on North Charles Street and its successors in the northern reaches of the city largely replaced the earlier President Street Station on the southeast for passenger service. The latter continued to serve as a freight station into the 1940s World War II era but served some passenger trains until 1911. The Pennsylvania Railroad, which acquired the PW&B in a merger in 1881, demolished the President Street&#39;s eastern train shed after heavy snow damage in 1913 and erected a new, shorter shed, built with wooden roof trusses.</p><br>
<h2>Post-railroad use</h2><br>
<p>The President Street Station was later used as a warehouse. The train shed was destroyed by fire, leaving only the present head house by 1970, when it was abandoned. In 1979, the derelict building was acquired by the City of Baltimore, which planned to demolish it to clear the way for a proposed southern extension of the Jones Falls Expressway (Interstate 83) to connect in an interchange near the harbor with the east - west Interstate 95 which was never built. In 1989, the station’s wooden arched roof collapsed in a snowstorm.</p><br>
<h2>As a museum</h2><br>
<p>In the 1990s, a public-private partnership pushed by a supporters group, the Friends of the President Street Station (FofPSS), funded the reconstruction/restoration/renovation of the vacant station and historic site, which reopened in April 1997 as the "Baltimore Civil War Museum" with the assistance of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Museum at the Mount Clare Shops.</p><br>
<p>President Street Station, Inc. operated the museum until 2000, when the building lease was partnered with the Maryland Historical Society (MdHS), located on their campus of buildings on West Monument Street, until 2006. The lease/partnership arrangement with the City and the FoPSS originally expired in 2017.</p><br>
<p>The museum temporarily closed in 2007, due to budget constraints by the MdHS in connection with their nearby extension at the new Fells Point Maritime Museum on Thames Street, then re-opened on weekends only, operated by MdHS and subsequently by FofPSS volunteers. The Civil War Museum was open on weekends in February 2010, in observance of Black History Month, although heavy snowfall forced closure of the museum on two weekends.</p><br>
<p>The future of the historic property is uncertain: In 2009, the City of Baltimore announced plans to designate the old depot as a landmark, which would restrict modifications to the buildings exterior, and to request proposals for commercial development of the grounds. FofPSS opposes this, and called instead for the stations preservation and management as a museum by the National Park Service. The director of Baltimore City&#39;s Commission for Historical and Architectural Preservation, which will review proposals, said that any commercial use "must be subordinate to the history" and that a multi-use partnership would be ideal.</p><br>
<p>On February 13, 2015, USA Senators Barbara Mikulski and Benjamin Cardin introduced bill, "The President Street Station Study Act," which would authorize the National Park Service to study the suitability and feasibility of absorbing the station.</p><br>
<p>As of 2017, FofPSS operates the museum.</p><br>
<p>The Marshall House  is a National Historic Landmark and historic house museum at 217 Edwards Ferry Road in Leesburg, Virginia. It is owned by the George C. Marshall International Center, which has restored the property to its Marshall-era appearance of the 1950s. It is nationally significant as the home of George Catlett Marshall, Jr. , Chief of Staff of the United States Army during World War II, Secretary of State, President of the American Red Cross, and Secretary of Defense.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>George Catlett Marshall, who was Army Chief of Staff, special envoy to China, Secretary of State, President of the Red Cross, Secretary of Defense, and namesake of the Marshall Plan, and his wife Katherine Marshall purchased the property for $16,000 in 1941 and lived there until his death on October 16, 1959. Legend has it that Katherine paid the owners $10 earnest money and threw the "for sale" sign into the bushes as she left to discourage the competition. Except for a winter home in Pinehurst, N.C., this house was the only home Marshall ever owned, and was the backdrop to quiet conversations and contemplations of international importance. Katherine gave the house and 3.88 acres to her daughter, Molly Winn, in 1960 while she moved to Pinehurst for permanent residence. When Mrs. Winn expressed her desire to sell the property in the early 1990s, several prominent Leesburg citizens under the leadership of B. Powell Harrison were concerned that the property might fall into commercial hands and be demolished and urged the Town of Leesburg to purchase it. That proved to be impossible, so the citizens formed the George C. Marshall Home Preservation Fund, later the George C. Marshall International Center, and purchased the Marshall House for $2.3 million. After renovations costing more than $4.5 million, the house opened as a museum on Veterans Day in 2005. Much of the money for the purchase and renovation was donated by European nations that had benefited from the Marshall Plan. Further funding was provided by grants from the Commonwealth of Virginia, National Park Service (Save America’s Treasures program), USA Department of Housing and Urban Development, Garden Club of Virginia, and generous private donations.</p><br>
<p>The house was named Dodona Manor before the Marshalls purchased it. The name derives from Dodona, a shrine in ancient Greece where priests and priestesses interpreted the rustling of oak (and beech) leaves as messages from the gods. Dating from the second millennium BCE, the Dodona shrine was considered to be second in prestige only to Delphi. Due to the large amount of oak trees located on and around the property, naming the house Dodona Manor seemed appropriate.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence that a two-story house existed on the property with five-course American brickwork in the early 1800s. John Drish, who purchased the property in 1805, added a Federal-style wing with Flemish bond brickwork and keystone arches in the mid-1820s and gave the property to his son Wilson Drish, who sold it to Fayette Ball, a distant relative of George Washington, in 1855. In 1856, the Rev. Charles Nourse, principal of the Leesburg Academy, purchased it. He tried unsuccessfully to sell it in 1859, and then opened the Loudoun Female Collegiate Institute in the house in 1860, after completing an addition to increase the number of bedrooms. Subsequent owners included Sophia Delany, Joseph and Martha Prather, Wallace and Sally George, Yvon and Ella Pike and Marcia McCann Ely and Northcutt Ely, who added electricity and indoor plumbing and eventually sold it to the Marshalls. The Marshalls also added two bay windows, a stone court, and changed the wooden porch to a more durable brick.</p><br>
<p>The Marshall House is unique among historic houses because over 90% of the furnishings and memorabilia in the house were owned and used by the Marshalls and were obtained from Mrs. Marshall’s heirs. Due to the extensive disrepair over time, detailed plans for the conservation and placement of the collection and for the reproduction of the original floor and wall coverings were developed by Dr. William Seale, a leading expert in the field, and Anne Horstman, who served as executive vice president of the Marshall Center during the restoration. Among the items are originals or reproductions of art given to the Marshalls, including a reproduction of View of Tinherir, painted by Sir Winston Churchill in Morocco in 1951 and given to the Marshalls in 1953. The original View of Tinherir was sold at auction by Marshall&#39;s granddaughter Kitty Winn in 2006 for £612,800 ($1.2 million), a record price for a Churchill painting at that time.</p><br>
<p>Another reproduction is Evening, by Russian artist Vassily Baksheyev. The original was a gift to Marshall from Vyacheslav Molotov, foreign minister of the Soviet Union, in 1947 in appreciation for Marshall’s efforts in World War II.</p><br>
<p>The Marshall House also has an original black and white landscape painted by Soong Mei-ling, wife of the president of the Republic of China, Chiang Kai-chek. She and the Marshalls became close friends when Marshall was President Harry Truman’s special envoy to China in 1946–47, and Madame Chiang visited the Marshall House on at least one occasion. Other pieces of Chinese art in the house include a painting by Wen Xuan Dai, a gift from the Chiangs to Katherine on her 64th birthday in 1946, and a fish painting by Tzulu Shen gifted by the Chinese Cultural Enterprise as a thank you for Marshall&#39;s efforts in China.</p><br>
<p>For Christmas 1959, two months after Marshall died, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent a print of his Mount Eisenhower, located in New Hampshire, USA, watercolor to Katherine with a handwritten note. Both are on display in The Marshall House.</p><br>
<p>Also on display is Marshall&#39;s favorite red La-Z-boy next to his General Electric radio and television combination set, where he would listen to his favorite baseball team, the Brooklyn Dodgers, and watch his favorite TV shows including I Love Lucy, Gunsmoke, and American Bandstand in one of the most comfortable rooms in the house, the library. This room includes many treasured items including figurines of a Chinese wedding procession given to Marshall by Madame Chiang Kai-chek, a portrait of Colonel Robert E. Lee, and scores of original books, usually historical biographies. Although Lee attended West Point and Marshall attended VMI, Marshall considered General Lee and George Washington brilliant military strategists which is evident by the multiple portraits seen throughout the house.</p><br>
<p>Due to her fondness for the Marshalls, Madame Chiang visited and stayed at Dodona Manor many times throughout the 1940s and 1950s. The original master bedroom was converted to a guest bedroom, while George and Katherine occupied the two original guest bedrooms adjoined by a Jack and Jill bathroom. Their use of separate bedrooms could be accounted for by their two different lifestyles; George was a military man who woke up early and enjoyed his own space, similar to the days of military barracks living whereas Katherine enjoyed sleeping in with breakfast in bed. Madame Chiang also brought anywhere from three to five servants with her who would have stayed in the grandchildren&#39;s nursery.</p><br>
<p>To protect the views from the Marshall House, the Marshalls purchased eleven surrounding properties. These properties generate revenue to support the organization. The grounds have been restored to their Marshall-era appearance of the 1950s and include a large vegetable garden that was restorative as an antidote to the pressures Marshall felt as Army Chief of Staff. Katherine delighted in growing roses, and a restored rose garden features the types of roses she cultivated, including the "K.T. Marshall Rose."</p><br>
<p>The Marshall House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1996.</p><br>
<p>The Literary Club of Cincinnati is located at 500 East Fourth Street, across from Lytle Park in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio. The club occupies a two story Greek Revival house which was built in 1820, on the site of the home of William Sargent, secretary of the Northwest Territory. The Club was founded in 1849; its membership is limited to 100 men.</p><br>
<p>Today, the clubhouse is a contributing property to the Lytle Park Historic District, a historic district that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Among the important roles of the Literary Club is that of historian, who delivers an annual paper on a topic of his choosing that deals with the history of the club. The long-time historian was John A. Diehl, who was elected a member of the club in 1965. After his more than two decades in the post, the club published a book of his papers as historian. The current historian is Robert Vitz.</p><br>
<p>Club members may invite guests to club meetings. Among famous guests in the past are Charles Dickens, Oscar Wilde, and Samuel L. Clemens, better known as Mark Twain. Among distinguished members are US Presidents Rutherford B. Hayes and William Howard Taft, who also served as Chief Justice of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Lago di Lei is a reservoir in the Valle di Lei, powering the Hinterrhein storage power stations. The reservoir is almost entirely located in Italy, but the barrage was built on territory later assigned to Switzerland , while an equivalent territory north of the lake was assigned to Italy. The dam is operated by Kraftwerke Hinterrhein.</p><br>
<p>The waters of the lake are the only waters in Italian territory which end up in the North Sea, being part of the Rhines drainage basin. Other waters of Italy that dont flow to the Mediterranean Sea are found in the valley of Livigno, valley of Sexten, Puster Valley east of Innichen, and most of the waters of the municipality of Tarvisio east of Sella Nevea: all these waters flow to the Black Sea.</p><br>
<p>Fort Halifax is a former British colonial outpost on the banks of the Sebasticook River, just above its mouth at the Kennebec River, in Winslow, Maine. Originally built as a wooden palisaded fort in 1754, during the French and Indian War, only a single blockhouse survives. A National Historic Landmark, it is the oldest blockhouse in the United States. It is now set in a municipal park, and is open to the public in the warmer months. It was the first of three significant forts which the British built on the major rivers in the Northeast to cut off the native water ways to the ocean ).</p><br>
<h2>French and Indian War</h2><br>
<p>Fort Halifax was a fort on the north bank of the Sebasticook River. (It had previously been the location of the native Fort Taconnet or Taconock, which natives burned upon the approach of Major Benjamin Church during King William&#39;s War in the late 17th century. ) Its blockhouse, which survives, is the oldest blockhouse in the United States. (The oldest blockhouse in North America is Fort Edward). It was part of a garrison built by the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1754-1756 at the outset of the French and Indian War. On July 25, 1754, Major General John Winslow arrived with a force of 600 soldiers to establish the fort at the confluence of the Kennebec River with the Sebasticook River. (William Shirley was also on this expedition.) The palisaded defense was intended to prevent Canadiens and their Native American allies from using the Kennebec River valley as a route to attack English settlements. Further, Massachusetts was extending its border into the former region of Acadia and threatening the capital of Canada, Quebec.</p><br>
<p>Fort Richmond was dismantled in 1755 when Fort Shirley (named after William Shirley, also called Frankfort, located in present-day Dresden), Fort Western and Fort Halifax were built upriver.</p><br>
<p>In 1754, Fort Halifax was built by order of the Massachusetts General Court on the peninsula at the confluence of the Sebasticook and Kennebec rivers. The fort was named for George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, the British colonial secretary. A settlement subsequently sprang up under its protection, and was named in honor of Major-General John Winslow, of Marshfield, Massachusetts who had overseen the fort&#39;s construction.</p><br>
<p>The Natives raided the fort in the fall of 1754.</p><br>
<p>In 1755, the commanding officer, Captain William Lithgow, discontinued Major-General Winslow&#39;s original plan for the fort, citing limited manpower and expense. The fort was made smaller and more defensible and was completed in 1756. The Canadiens and Natives immediately made plans to destroy the fort. In May 1756, the natives attacked soldiers from the fort.</p><br>
<p>In 1756, near Topshee, Col Lithgow and a party of 8 men were ambushed by 17 natives, both sides suffering the loss of two men. The natives later killed two more white men in the area. The fort was abandoned in 1766, and was sold into private hands.</p><br>
<h2>American Revolution</h2><br>
<p>In September 1775, Fort Halifax hosted troops under Colonel Benedict Arnold on their expedition to Quebec City. At the end of the American Revolution, most of Fort Halifax was dismantled. By the early 19th century, only the blockhouse on the Sebasticook still stood. Later in the century, tourists visited the fort, especially railway passengers and students from Colby College. These guests carved chunks of wood from the blockhouse as souvenirs.</p><br>
<h2>19th - 20th Century</h2><br>
<p>In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, ownership of Fort Halifax blockhouse changed hands numerous times. The structures of the fort deteriorated, and eventually everything except the surviving blockhouse was demolished.</p><br>
<p>On April 1, 1987, a severe flood dismantled the blockhouse. Twenty-two original logs were recovered, some of them found as far south as forty miles. The blockhouse was reconstructed on its original site in 1988. That fall, the rebuilt blockhouse was dedicated in a ceremony that drew hundreds of guests.</p><br>
<p>The Town of Winslow in 2011 drafted plans to rebuild some of the fort and to expand and improve interpretive displays, trails, and recreational opportunities at the site.</p><br>
<p>Mansiri Himal is a small, high subrange of the Himalaya in north-central Nepal, about 100 km northwest of Kathmandu. The Marsyangdi River separates the Mansiri from the Annapurnas to the southwest, then an upper tributary Dudh Khola separates Peri Himal to the northwest. On the east side, the Burhi  Gandaki separates the Mansiri from Ganesh Himal, Serang or Sringi Himal and Kutang Himal. All these streams are tributary to the Gandaki.</p><br>
<p>The Mansiri range is also known as Manaslu Himal or the Gurkha Massif. It contains these peaks among Earth&#39;s twenty highest (with at least 500m topographic prominence):</p><br>
<p>Manaslu, 8,156 m, 8th highest</p><br>
<p>Himalchuli, 7,893 m, 18th highest</p><br>
<p>Ngadi Chuli, 7,871 m, 20th highest</p><br>
<p>The Mansiri range is notable for its local relief. It rises 7,000 m above the Marsyangdi valley floor in less than 30 km (18 mi) horizontal distance.</p><br>
<p>Ilhéu de Cima is an uninhabited island of Cape Verde. It is part of the Ilhéus Secos islet group, located 4 km east of Ilhéu Grande, the other main islet of the group, and 8 km northeast of the island Brava. They are administratively a part of the Brava municipality. Also it is more than 14 km west of the island of Fogo. Surrounding islets include Ilhéu Luíz Carneiro , Ilhéu Sapado and Ilhéu do Rei . The island is an integral nature reserve, famous for its seabirds colonies.</p><br>
<h2>About the islets</h2><br>
<p>The northern part of the islet is lower but the southern part is higher and has a couple of hills.</p><br>
<p>Other geographic features include Baixa or Boca de Porto in the west and Baixo Cabeção (Baixo Cabeçon) and Baixo Daniel (Baixo Dánel).</p><br>
<p>At the area which separates the island, the highest point there is about 250 meters. During the Ice Age, it separated Brava between 4 to 5 km.</p><br>
<p>Tourism and fishing are rarely common around the islet.</p><br>
<p>Its average temperature is 23 °C., its highest temperature in March is 26 °C, and the lowest temperature being 22 °C in June. Average yearly rainfall is 280 mm, the wettest is in September with 125 mm and the driest is in April with only a millimeter.</p><br>
<p>The main islet was mentioned as "Ghuay" in the 1747 French/Dutch map by Jacques Nicolas Bellin.</p><br>
<p>Notable endangered fauna founded on the island include the Iago sparrow, on the island. In the mid-1950s, W. R. P. Bourne observed females remaining in flocks while males began to take up locations on rocky slopes from which they could sing.</p><br>
<p>A species of sponge Esperiopsis cimensis are founded in the waters surrounding the islets, they were discovered on 23 August 1986 and was named in 2012 after where it was first founded, the islet. They are founded in deep waters southeast at the depth of between 100 to 200 meters and in calcareous sandy areas.</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouse</h2><br>
<p>In the island&#39;s south there is a lighthouse located about 80 m above sea level.and is the only building, its lighthouse used for ships around Brava. Ships headed to and from Mindelo and others such as Southwestern Europe and Brazil cross within the lighthouse from the 1880s and the Great Depression of 1929.</p><br>
<p>The Makin Island Raid  was an attack by the United States Marine Corps Raiders on Japanese military forces on Makin Island  in the Pacific Ocean. The aim was to destroy Japanese installations, take prisoners, gain intelligence on the Gilbert Islands area, and divert Japanese attention and reinforcements from the Allied landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi.</p><br>
<h2>Preparations and organization</h2><br>
<p>The raid was among the first American offensive ground combat operations of World War II. The force was drawn from the 2nd Raider Battalion and comprised a small battalion command group and two of the Battalion&#39;s six rifle companies. Because of space limitations aboard ship, each company embarked without one of its rifle sections. Battalion headquarters, A Company and 18 men from B Company—totaling 121 troops—were embarked aboard the submarine and the remainder of B Company—totaling 90 men—aboard . The raiding force was designated Task Group 7.15 (TG 7.15).</p><br>
<p>The Makin Atoll garrison was formed in 1942 as part of the Marshall Islands garrison and called the 62nd Garrison Force. At the time of the Makin raid the total force opposing the American landings consisted of 71 armed personnel of the Japanese seaplane base led by Warrant Officer (Heisouchou) Kyuzaburo Kanemitsu of the Special Naval Landing Force equipped with light weapons. In addition there were also four members of the Seaplane Tender base and three members of a meteorological unit. Two civilian personnel were attached to the Japanese forces as interpreters and civilian administrators.</p><br>
<h2>Execution of the raid</h2><br>
<p>The Marine Raiders were launched in LCRL rubber boats powered by small, 6 hp outboard motors shortly after 00:00 (midnight) on 17 August. At 05:13, Companies A and B of the 2nd Raider Battalion—commanded by Lt. Col. Evans Carlson—successfully landed on Makin. The landing had been very difficult due to rough seas, high surf, and the failure of many of the outboard motors. Lt. Col. Carlson decided to land all his men on one beach, rather than two beaches as originally planned. At 05:15, Lt. Oscar Peatross and a 12-man squad landed on Makin. In the confusion of the landing, they did not get word of Carlson&#39;s decision to change plans and land all the Raiders on one beach. Thus, Peatross and his men landed where they originally planned. It turned out to be a fortunate error. Undaunted by the lack of support, Peatross led his men inland.</p><br>
<p>At 07:00, with Company A leading, the Raiders advanced from the beach across the island to its north shore before attacking southwestward. Strong resistance from Japanese snipers and machine guns stalled the advance and inflicted casualties. The Japanese then launched two banzai charges that were wiped out by the Raiders, thus killing most of the Japanese on the island. At 09:00, Lt. Peatross and his 12 men found themselves behind the Japanese who were fighting the rest of the Raiders to the east. Peatross&#39;s unit killed eight Japanese and the garrison commander Sgt. Major Kanemitsu, knocked out a machine gun and destroyed the enemy radios; but suffered three dead and two wounded. Failing to contact Carlson, they withdrew to the subs at dusk as planned.</p><br>
<p>At 13:30, 12 Japanese planes—including two flying boats—arrived over Makin. The flying boats—carrying reinforcements for the Japanese garrison—attempted to land in the lagoon, but were met with machine gun, rifle and Boys anti-tank rifle fire from the Raiders. One plane crashed; the other burst into flames. The remaining planes bombed and strafed but inflicted no U.S. casualties.</p><br>
<h2>Evacuation of the Raiders</h2><br>
<p>At 19:30, the Raiders began to withdraw from the island using 18 rubber boats, many of which no longer had working outboard motors. Despite heavy surf seven boats with 93 men made it to the subs. The next morning several boatloads of Raiders were able to fight the surf and reach the sub; but 72 men, along with just three rubber boats, were still on the island. At 23:30, the attempt by most of the Raiders to reach the submarines failed. Despite hours of heroic effort, 11 of 18 boats were unable to breach the unexpectedly strong surf. Having lost most of their weapons and equipment, the exhausted survivors struggled back to the beach to link up with 20 fully armed men who had been left on the island to cover their withdrawal. An exhausted and dispirited Carlson dispatched a note to the Japanese commander offering to surrender, but the Japanese messenger was killed by other Marines who were unaware of Carlson&#39;s plan.</p><br>
<p>At 09:00 on 18 August, the subs sent a rescue boat to stretch rope from the ships to the shore that would allow the remaining Raiders&#39; boats to be pulled out to sea. But just as the operation began, Japanese planes arrived and attacked, sinking the rescue boat and attacking the subs, which were forced to crash dive and wait on the bottom the rest of the day. The subs were undamaged. At 23:08, having managed to signal the subs to meet his Raiders at the entrance to Makin Lagoon, Carlson had a team, led by Lt. Charlie Lamb, build a raft made up of three rubber boats and two native canoes, powered by the two remaining outboard motors. Using this raft, 72 exhausted Raiders sailed 4 miles from Makin to the mouth of the lagoon, where the subs picked them up.</p><br>
<h3>Casualties</h3><br>
<p>USMC casualties were given as 18 killed in action and 12 missing in action. Of the 12 Marines missing in action, one was later identified among the 19 Marine Corps graves found on Makin Island. Of the remaining eleven Marines missing in action, nine were inadvertently left behind or returned to the island during the night withdrawal. They were subsequently captured, moved to Kwajalein Atoll, and executed by Japanese forces. Kōsō Abe was subsequently tried and executed by the Allies for the murder of the nine Marines. The remaining two Marines missing in action have never been accounted for.</p><br>
<p>Carlson reported that he had personally counted 83 Japanese bodies and estimated that 160 Japanese were killed based on reports from the Makin Island natives with whom he spoke. Additional Japanese personnel may have been killed in the destruction of two boats and two aircraft. Morison states that 60 Japanese were killed in the sinking of one of the boats. Japanese records are however more precise and the entire garrison casualties were 46 killed of all ranks (not including the purported large casualties Carlson reported for the boats he had sunk). This was confirmed when supporting Japanese forces returned to the island and found 27 Japanese survivors of the raid.</p><br>
<h2>Conclusions</h2><br>
<p>Although the Marine Raiders succeeded in annihilating the Japanese garrison on the island, the raid failed to meet its other material objectives. No Japanese prisoners were taken, and no meaningful intelligence was collected. Also, no significant Japanese forces were diverted from the Solomon Islands area. In fact, because the vulnerabilities to their garrisons in the Gilbert Islands were highlighted by the raid, the Japanese strengthened their fortifications and defensive preparations on the islands in the central Pacific. As a result, the objective to dissipate Japanese forces may have had the unintended consequence of causing heavier losses for U.S. forces during the battles of the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaigns. However, the raid did succeed in its objectives of boosting morale and testing Raider tactics.</p><br>
<h2>Bioarchaeological recovery</h2><br>
<p>In 2000, 58 years after the raid, the remains of 19 Marines were found on Makin Island through bioarchaeological excavation and recovery, then sent to the Defense Department&#39;s Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii, where they were identified. Six of these Marines were returned to their families for private burial ceremonies. The remaining 13 were buried with full honors at Arlington National Cemetery after a funeral service at Fort Myer Chapel at which the Marine Commandant General James L. Jones spoke. The remaining eleven Marines have not yet been located.</p><br>
<p>Cheonjeyeon Waterfall is a three-tier waterfall located on Jeju Island. Cold water flows out of the ceiling of a cave to make the waterfall. In first cascade, the cliff is 22 m high and the water falls into Cheonjeyeon pond which is 21 m deep. According to Korean legend, seven nymphs would descend from the heavens at night and bathe in the waterfall&#39;s pond.</p><br>
<p>The warm temperate forest around Cheonjeyeon Waterfall was designated Natural Monument No. 378 in 1993 because of the rare plants it contains and its value for scientific research. Rare plants such as the solipnan (솔잎난) plants or skeleton fork fern (Psilotum nudum) can be found around the falls in the crevices of rocks.</p><br>
<p>Since ancient times, it is thought that standing under the waterfall on the 15th day of the seventh lunar month can cure diseases by the eighth lunar month, though swimming is now prohibited.</p><br>
<p>Above the falls is Seonimgyo Bridge, which symbolizes the legend of Cheonjeyeon.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hehuan  is a 3,416 m mountain in Central Taiwan. The peak lies on the boundaries of Nantou and Hualien counties and is within the Taroko Gorge National Park. Hehuanshan is a popular destination for the local people of central Taiwan. The 3,421-metre East Peak and 3,422-metre North Peak of Hehuanshan are actually both higher than the main peak.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Snow, rare in the rest of Taiwan, is relatively common on the mountain during winter months. The Hehuanshan Road leads most of the way up the mountain to Wuling, a saddle between the Main Peak and the East Peak of Hehuanshan. Wuling is the highest point on the island of Taiwan accessible by public roads.</p><br>
<p>There was at one point a ski lift on the mountain, but later, due to the inconsistency of snowfall, the lift was removed. Remains of the ski lift mechanism are still visible to hikers on the east peak trail.</p><br>
<p>From the Hehuanshan Road, a trail about one kilometer long leads to the summit of the main peak. At the summit, there is a weather station.</p><br>
<p>Hehuanshan is part of the Central Mountain Range (中央山脈) that makes up the backbone of Taiwan.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the past, a military training area was built in the proximity of Hehuanshan. The mountain range also features the remains of a ski lift, reportedly used by Taiwan&#39;s elite during the martial law period and inaccessible to most people. The unreliability of snowfall has meant that the ski lift was abandoned years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Hehuanshan Road</h2><br>
<p>The Hehuanshan Road is currently the only paved road leading across the Central Mountains from Taichung City to Hualien via the famous Taroko Gorge. The Central Cross-Island Highway, which originally crossed the mountains north of Hehuanshan, was damaged during the September 21, 1999 earthquake and had been under repair for five years afterwards. But prior to its re-opening disaster struck again in form of a typhoon and it was decided to keep it closed indefinitely.</p><br>
<p>The Hehuanshan Road leads up from Puli in central Nantou past Wushe (Ren-ai) and Chingjing Farm up to Wuling. Wuling, at 3,275 metres above sea level, is the highest automobile pass in Taiwan. The road is narrow and winding throughout, and is considered a dangerous and difficult road by many drivers. This road often becomes clogged in winter, when many locals travel up the mountain to see snow. Recently, after several incidents, buses and large trucks were barred from this stretch of road.</p><br>
<p>Jeongbang Waterfall is a famous waterfall on Jeju Island. The waterfall is 23 m high and is very close to the ocean. Depending on the level of recent rainfall, it can be up 8 m wide. The source of the waterfall is the stream Donghong-chun. According to some sources, Jeongbang Waterfall is the only waterfall in Asia that falls directly in the ocean. However, this may be disputed, since its water falls into a sheltered cove rather than straight into the ocean. It is considered Yeongjusipgeong, one of the ten greatest scenic wonders of Jeju.</p><br>
<p>Legend states that a holy dragon lived underneath it. It was said that the dragon&#39;s spirit is contained in the water which can cure diseases and bring rain during drought. Furthermore, a nearby small waterfall is said to resemble a servant waiting on a lord.</p><br>
<p>A legend states that Emperor Jin of China (259 BC - 210 BC) sent a servant, Seobul, to fetch the magical herbs of eternal youth from Mount Halla.), on the cliff wall, where it no longer remains. An inscription on the wall of the waterfall saying "Seobulgwacha", refers to Seobul&#39;s journey. The waterfall is one of the three famous waterfalls of Jeju, along with Cheonjiyeon Waterfall and Cheonjeyeon Waterfall. A smaller waterfall, Sojeongbang Waterfall is 300 m to the east.</p><br>
<p>The Silas Gardner House is a colonial stone house at the junction of routes 52 and 300 in the Gardnertown section of the Town of Newburgh in Orange County, New York. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1980. The house was built in 1783 for Silas Gardner, a miller.</p><br>
<p>Gardner was the first to build a home in the area that would take its name from him. This name was kept despite his history during the Revolutionary War. He had at first supported his fellow colonists&#39; demands for redress from Britain, but felt actually declaring independence was a reckless move that would backfire on the colonists and stayed out of the war. Later developments led him to aid the wife of a British officer from the area in escaping to Canada.</p><br>
<p>The house stood vacant for years after his descendants left it in the late 19th century. It might have had to be demolished until a family that had moved to the area from Minnesota bought it and renovated it in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>The Pontic Mountains or Pontic Alps  form a mountain range in northern Anatolia, Turkey. They are also known as the Parhar Mountains in the local Turkish and Pontic Greek languages. The term Parhar originates from a Hittite word meaning "high" or "summit". In ancient Greek, the mountains were called the Paryadres or Parihedri Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The range runs roughly east-west, parallel and close to the southern coast of the Black Sea. It extends northeast into Georgia, and west into the Sea of Marmara, with the northwestern spur of the Küre Mountains (and their western extension the Akçakoca Mountains) and the Bolu Mountains, following the coast. The highest peak in the range is Kaçkar Dağı, which rises to 3,937 m. The North Anatolian Fault and the Northeast Anatolian Fault, which are east-west running strike-slip faults, run along the length of the range.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are generally covered by dense forests, predominantly of conifers. The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the range, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the far-eastern end of the range, known as the Kaçkar Mountains. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper. The narrow coastal strip between the mountains and the Black Sea, known as Pontus, is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world&#39;s few temperate rainforests. The Anatolian Plateau, which lies south of the range, has a considerably drier and more continental climate than the humid and mild coast.</p><br>
<p>The Seven Sisters  is the 39th tallest waterfall in Norway. The waterfall consists of seven separate streams, and the tallest of the seven has a free fall that measures 250 m.</p><br>
<p>The waterfall is located along the Geirangerfjorden in Stranda Municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. The waterfall is located just south of the historic Knivsflå farm, across the fjord from the old Skageflå farm. The falls are about 6.5 km west of the village of Geiranger. It is part of the Geiranger World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>"The Seven Sisters" (De Syv Søstrene or Dei Sju Systrene) is located on the northern side of Geirangerfjorden, and directly across the fjord lies a single waterfall called "The Suitor" (Friaren). The legend of the seven sisters is that they dance playfully down the mountain. Meanwhile, across the fjord, the suitor (or courter) flirts playfully with them from afar.</p><br>
<p>Van Cortlandt Manor is a house and property located near the confluence of the Croton and Hudson Rivers in the village of Croton-on-Hudson in Westchester County, New York, United States. The stone and brick manor house is now a museum and is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>By Royal Charter, Van Cortlandt Manor was a originally a 86,000 acre tract granted as a Patent to Stephanus Van Cortlandt in 1697 by King William III, stretching from the Hudson River on the west to the first boundary line between the Province of New York and the Colony of Connecticut, on the east, twenty English miles in length by ten in width, in shape nearly a rectangular parallelogram, forming, “The Manor of Cortlandt.” The massive holding was acquired by direct purchase from the Indians, in part, by Stephanus van Cortlandt, a native born Dutch gentleman of New York, and in part by others whose titles he subsequently bought, this tract, together with a small tract on the west side of the Hudson River opposite the promontory of Anthony’s Nose, which he also purchased from the Indians.</p><br>
<p>The Manor House was built sometime before 1732 but was not any owner&#39;s principal residence until a grandson, Pierre Van Cortlandt, moved there in 1749. At that time the manor house was on a 1,000 acre portion of the original tract.</p><br>
<p>Pierre brought his family to the estate in 1749 and established the manor into its most vibrant days, according to some. During this period, the manor was operating an apple orchard, dairy farm, a bee house, a kiln, a tavern, and carpenter and blacksmith shops. Van Cortlandt Manor was a self-sustaining community while Pierre and his family resided in the estate. At this time, though, tensions leading to the Revolutionary War were building and the manor would become a place of wartime retreat.Pierre sided with the colonies and the manor was used to assist the Continental Army, using its resources to make food and supplies. Pierre was involved with military legislature, and his son Philip was a soldier for the Continental Army. Eventually Pierre and his family vacated the manor in the thick of the war. The manor was ransacked by the British Army and left in poor standing. Philip, becoming a brigadier general by the war’s end, returned and, along with his sister, Catherine, brought the manor back to working order.</p><br>
<p>Van Cortlandt Manor became an essential stop on the route from New York to Albany in the years that followed the war. The mills were once again thriving and provided the community and travelers with food, supplies, and lodging. Pierre and his wife did not return until 1803 once the manor was in full working order again.</p><br>
<p>The manor was passed down in the family until it was sold to a non-relative, Otis Taylor, in 1945. By this time the property had lost luster, and was not the flourishing estate it has once been. Some buildings and barn houses were taken down to accommodate for more modern facilities, such as a movie house.</p><br>
<p>In 1953 John D. Rockefeller Jr. purchased the property and began restoring the manor to previous prominence. In 1961, Van Cortlandt Manor became registered as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The house is not included in the area of Cortlandt Manor, New York. It is one of the mansions included in Historic Hudson Valley.</p><br>
<p>Thruscross Reservoir is the northernmost of four reservoirs in the Washburn valley, lying north of Otley and west of Harrogate in North Yorkshire, England, near the hamlet of Thruscross. It can be found on an unclassified road from the A59 road  Permission to construct the reservoir was granted via a water order in 1960 and Thruscross was completed in 1966, much later than the other three reservoirs which date back to the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the reservoir flooded the village of West End, which was already largely derelict following the decline of the flax industry. There is another hamlet close to the reservoir that retains the name of West End. The remains of a flax mill can be seen at the edge of the reservoir, and more of the village has been revealed at times of drought, such as the summers of 1989 and 1990. The work to build the reservoir included clearing trees, removing sacred items from the church and exhuming bodies from the graveyard.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir is the property of Yorkshire Water, which manages it for the benefit of walkers, anglers and wildlife. Yorkshire Water also release water at specific times on the weekends and in the evenings to allow canoeists to navigate along all four reservoirs in the Washburn Valley. This canoe run starts at Thruscross.</p><br>
<p>In the novel In a Dry Season by the English-born, Canadian-based crime writer Peter Robinson, the fictional village of Hobbs End, flooded by the creation of the Thornfield Reservoir, is exposed during a drought, leading to the discovery of a body. The geography described by Robinson indicates that he based the location of Hobbs End on the village of West End. The small bridge over the Washburn becomes the Fairy Bridge and the flax mill is mentioned explicitly.</p><br>
<p>The Horseshoe Pass  is a mountain pass in Denbighshire, north-east Wales. It separates Llantysilio Mountain to the west from the 565 metre  mountain and Marilyn Cyrn-y-Brain to the east. The A542 road from Llandegla to Llangollen runs through the pass, reaching a maximum height of 417 m. The road travels in a horseshoe shape around the sides of a valley, giving the pass its English name.</p><br>
<p>This route dates from 1811, when a turnpike road was constructed across the area. As with the rest of the roads in the Clwydian Range, it is not uncommon for sheep to gather in the road, sometimes causing problems for drivers. The road is also frequently closed in winter due to snowfall or landslides.</p><br>
<p>The Pass is well known for the Ponderosa cafe at its highest point and the scenic views along the road. Both the cafe and the pass itself are extremely popular with cyclists & motorcyclists. There are many walks and routes in the immediate area that are popular with hikers, and there are a number of campsites nearby.</p><br>
<p>The Ben Franklin House, formerly known as the Benjamin Franklin Hotel, is a historic hotel, now apartment building, located at 834 Chestnut Street in Center City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Benjamin Franklin Hotel was built by Niagara Falls businessman Frank A. Dudley and operated by the United Hotels Company of America. The hotel, originally opened in 1923, was designed by prominent American architect of the Gilded Age, Horace Trumbauer.</p><br>
<p>The hotel, named for founding father and Philadelphian, Benjamin Franklin, attracted attention in 1947 for refusing to accommodate the Brooklyn Dodgers, who had used the hotel for years, because of the inclusion of Jackie Robinson, the first African-American player in Major League Baseball. The Bellevue-Stratford Hotel agreed to house the team that day. The team moved their permanent accommodations to the Warwick Hotel.</p><br>
<p>The hotel was owned by Bankers Securities Corporation which owned several hotels (including, ironically, the Bellevue-Stratford, the Sullivan, former Holiday Inn in area of football/baseball stadiums) within the city of Philadelphia. During the tradition of Army-Navy football, the hotel was the housing hotel for Army. The 1970s were a slow period with hotels hoping to benefit by the 1976 Bicentennial Celebration in the original thirteen colonies. However, the 1976 celebration was not the tourist financial success expected. Mr. William Chadwick was the general manager for many years in the 1960s to 1970s, followed by Harry Gilbert and then Tom Johnson just prior to the hotel&#39;s closing in the 1980s. Also, on the staff in the late 1960s to early 1970s was Robert C. Bennett, Jr.,(grandson of Claude H. Bennett noted hotel manager of the 1930s) later the founding professor of the hotel management degree program at a suburban county community college ( Delaware County Community College 1974).</p><br>
<p>Also, in 1976 the state of New Jersey legalized casino gambling, which further deluted the hotel industry demand in greater Philadelphia as new hotels opened in Atlantic City.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>In the mid-1980s the hotel was renovated and reopened as the Benjamin Franklin House. It is affectionately referred to as "The Ben" by many Philadelphians. During the renovation, the historic ballroom was converted into office space which resulted in objections by the National Park Service. The ballroom was restored in 1988 to qualify for federal tax credits.</p><br>
<p>The building currently has 412 apartments, 120,000 ft&sup2; of office space, and one of Philadelphia&#39;s largest ballrooms used for banquet/weddings.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>Pohick Church is an Episcopal church in the community of Lorton in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. Often called the "Mother Church of Northern Virginia", the church is notable for its association with important figures in early Virginia history such as George Washington and George Mason, both of whom served on its vestry. As Pohick Episcopal Church it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early colonial period: first churches</h3><br>
<p>The origins of Pohick Church can be traced to a chapel of ease for Overwharton Parish, which appears to have been built around 1695 in the Woodlawn area of today&#39;s community of Mount Vernon. This church, the first in the parish and thus the first in Northern Virginia, was recorded in a 1715 land grant as being along the Potomac Path, the "county main road", which today is USA Route 1. In 1730 the parish relocated the church south, building a frame structure, the so-called "church above Occoquan Ferry" near what later became the community of Colchester. The site of this church is today occupied by Cranford United Methodist Church; there, a stone in the churchyard marks the original site of Pohick Church, and a walkway of oversized brick on the property is thought to date from the period of the original building. No other trace of the original structure or its site exists; the last remnant was the cemetery, whose location is known but which was empty of grave markers by 1938.</p><br>
<p>By 1730 the population of the parish had grown substantially, and it was decided by the Virginia General Assembly to create a new parish, Hamilton, out of Overwharton to better serve the needs of the people. The church at Occoquan became the parish church of this new parish. In 1732 another split was made, and Truro Parish was formed; the church, now renamed "Pohick Church" in honor of its position along Pohick Creek, became the parish church for this new parish as well, being the only church then in the neighborhood. The first person to preach there was the Reverend Lawrence DeButts,</p><br>
<p>Dr. Charles Green was the first rector of Pohick Church; he was successfully sponsored by Augustine Washington, father of George, who was elected to the church vestry in 1735. Green was confirmed to the post in 1736 and traveled to London for ordination, returning to take up his duties the following year. During his tenure as rector Green was involved in a major scandal when he was accused by Lawrence Washington of sexual misconduct with his wife Anne.</p><br>
<p>Washington demanded Greens ouster from his post at the church; Green refused, and brought countersuit against Washington for slander, whereupon the latter demanded an ecclesiastical trial. This took place in the chapel of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg beginning on November 6, 1745; before a verdict was reached, however, Governor William Gooch stepped in and ordered Green to drop the suit, in exchange for which he would not be removed from his post. In the end, the rector remained at Pohick for the next twenty years as a respected clergyman; at his death in 1765 George Washington served as his executor. Masseys duties frequently took him to other churches in the parish, and as a result Pohick Church was not open for services every Sunday of the year.</p><br>
<p>George Mason began his long association with the church in February 1749–50, when he was named warden to replace the deceased Jeremiah Bronaugh; he would go on to serve the congregation as a vestryman until the dissolution of vestries after the American Revolutionary War. Also elected to the post of warden, on October 25, 1762, was George Washington. He, too, would go on to serve as vestryman, attending frequent meetings at the church despite its distance from his home at Mount Vernon; he also remained otherwise quite active in the parish, and is said to have often persuaded house guests to attend services with him. In October 1763 Washington and George William Fairfax were appointed churchwardens for the following year.</p><br>
<h3>Construction of the present church</h3><br>
<p>By 1767, the Pohick vestry determined that the now-dilapidated frame structure serving the parish should be replaced. George Washington argued the need for finding a new location, although he is reported to have stalked out of the meeting, exclaiming, "That&#39;s what gentlemen get for engaging in a debate with a damned surveyor!" The final vote was seven to five in favor of moving the site of the church. The new location was settled on, and a building committee was impaneled; its members were Washington, Mason, George William Fairfax, Daniel McCarty, and Edward Payne. Recalling the Biblical image of a "city upon a hill", the highest point of land in the vicinity was chosen as the site of the new church.</p><br>
<p>Twenty percent of the building&#39;s cost was raised at a 1772 auction of pews in which many local landowners participated; the remainder came from tithes and other contributions, The churchyard was laid out at a meeting of the vestry, held on the future site of the church, in 1769; three acres and twenty-six perches of land were purchased, at the rate of a guinea an acre, and the deed was made by Daniel French of Rose Hill, also the first contractor of the building. French was to be paid £877 for his work, in Virginia currency.</p><br>
<p>The original plan for Pohick Church was drawn up by James Wren, and was identical to that used for both The Falls Church and Christ Church in Alexandria, Virginia; however, at some point during the construction process the footprint of the church was altered to that seen today. Some sources have claimed that George Washington himself drew up the design for the building, and at least one hints that George Mason, too, might have provided input; however, records show that in March 1769 the vestry paid James Wren and William West for the church plans. and oversight passed to William Buckland, who was also involved in the building of Gunston Hall nearby, and who may have participated in the decoration of the church interior as well; it is possible that Buckland took over the work at the instigation of his employer, George Mason, who had assumed many of Frenchs debts and obligations at the latters death.</p><br>
<p>An early plan describing the initial disposition and ownership of pews in the building was copied by Benson Lossing and republished by him in 1859; the original is currently unlocated. A 1774 entry in the church vestry book assigns an unusual order to four of the pews, stating: "Ordered that the Upper Pew in the new Church adjoining the South Wall be appropriated to the Use of the Magistrates and Strangers, and the Pew opposite thereto to the use of their Wives, and the two Pews next below them be appropriated to the Vestrymen and Merchants and their Wives, in like manner." The two most notable pewholders were George Mason and George Washington; other pews were kept by William Triplett, George William Fairfax, Alexander Henderson, Lund Washington (cousin of George), John Manley, Martin Cockburn, and Daniel McCarty. The eight pews located in the west end of the church were set aside for "Inhabitants and House Keepers of the Parish".</p><br>
<p>Construction of the church building was completed in 1774, just before the start of the American Revolutionary War. Early discussions of the Fairfax Resolves took place at the site in that year; among those in attendance at the meetings were George Washington and George Mason, and Rector Massey was among the signatories at their adoption. William Grayson is said to have been a member of the congregation in these years as well, and he is recorded as having served as an attorney for Truro Parish on numerous occasions.</p><br>
<h3>Early Federal period</h3><br>
<p>With the Religious Freedom Act of 1785, the Virginia General Assembly formally disestablished the Church of England as the official church of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Many former Anglican churches, now Episcopal instead, fell into decline, and Pohick was no exception. Another fixture at the church was Reverend Charles ONeill, remembered chiefly for having been presented with a used suit of Washingtons clothes, which he would wear while preaching, although it did not fit him well; he was held to be quite popular among local families.</p><br>
<p>Little else is known of the history of the structure from 1777 to 1836, although the vestry book records that George Washington resigned from the vestry in 1782, and that Rector Massey ceased his regular duties shortly thereafter due to ill health. Furthermore, Washington is known to have stopped attending regular services at Pohick by this time, having instead shifted his attention to Christ Church in Alexandria as his preferred house of worship; even so, he kept up payments on his pew at the church, and purchased that of his cousin Lund as well. In 1801 John Davis wrote a surviving account of a service at Pohick Church; it indicates that at the time of his visit approximately half the congregation was white and half black. Davis also attended a number of services preached by Weems, and found them well-attended.</p><br>
<p>Oral tradition indicates that Pohick Church was targeted by the British during the War of 1812 for its association with George Washington. One of the parishioners had carved a wooden dove, gilded it, and placed it on Washington&#39;s former pew, although some accounts state instead that it was affixed to the pulpit. According to the story, the sculpture was decapitated by a British soldier who also removed its wings, and was then thrown into the church courtyard, whence it was later retrieved. It was returned to the family of the sculptor, a Mr. Bowie, and passed down among his descendants before being returned to the congregation in 1988. Currently it is on display in the parish house of the church. Otherwise, it is recorded that the interior of the building remained largely intact until the time of the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>William Meade, later to become Episcopal Bishop of Virginia, visited the church in the summer of 1837, and described what he had seen in an address made the following year:</p><br>
<p>My next visit was to Pohick Church, in the vicinity of Mt. Vernon, the seat of General Washington. It was still raining when I approached the house, and found no one there. The wide open doors invited me to enter, as they do invite, day and night through the year, not only the passing traveller, but every beast of the field and fowl of the air. These latter however seemed to have reverenced the house of God, since few marks of their pollution were to be seen throughout it. The interior of the house, having been well built, is still good. The chancel, Communion table and tables of the law &c. are still there and in good order. The roof only is decaying; and at the time I was there the rain was dropping on these sacred places and on other parts of the house. On the doors of the pews, in gilt letters, are still to be seen the names of the principal Families which once occupied them. How could I, while for at least an hour traversing those long aisles, ascending the lofty pulpit, entering the sacred chancel, forbear to ask, And is this the House of God which was built by the Washingtons, the Mc.Cartys, the Lewises, the Fairfaxes?-the house in which they used to worship the God of our fathers according to the venerable forms of the Episcopal Church, and some of whose names are still to be seen on the doors of those now deserted pews? Is this also destined to moulder piecemeal away, or, when some signal is given, to become the prey of spoilers, and to be carried hither and thither and applied to every purpose under heaven?</p><br>
<p>On the strength of this appeal, the Reverend W. P. C. Johnson, then serving as a tutor at Gunston Hall, was able to raise fifteen hundred dollars for repairs, largely on the strength of the Bishops account; Meade further noted, however, that the doors belonging to the Washington and Mason pews were gone, although most of the others remained. Among those who provided funds to fix the leaking roof were John Quincy Adams, Martin van Buren, Daniel Webster, Francis Scott Key, and Henry Clay. The church continued serving an active Episcopal parish, being staffed sporadically by students from the Virginia Theological Seminary after Johnsons 1840 departure; in addition, a Methodist congregation held services in the building for some years in the 1850s, and a debating society used it for meetings for a time.</p><br>
<p>Benson Lossing attended a Methodist service at Pohick Church on December 10, 1848, and recorded the event in his widely-read Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution; he stated in his account that during the service he sat in the Washington family pew.</p><br>
<p>The earliest known detailed picture of the church building dates to this period in its history; it was painted by John Gadsby Chapman, and shows the dilapidated state to which the structure had been reduced. Dating to 1835, it is believed to have been painted to raise money for the restoration fund, although this is uncertain. The painting is in the church collection, but has been loaned to Mount Vernon for display.</p><br>
<h3>American Civil War</h3><br>
<p>By 1860, conditions at Pohick Church had deteriorated to such a state that it is unclear whether or not the building remained a consecrated house of worship at the dawn of the American Civil War. With its proximity to Washington, D.C., the building was quickly embroiled in the fighting that rocked Northern Virginia. The 2nd Michigan Volunteers, under the command of General Samuel P. Heintzelman, raided the church on November 12, 1861.</p><br>
<p>Thaddeus S. C. Lowe soon took over the church as a base of operations, and a garrison stationed at the site began to use the building as quarters. The men left graffiti behind on the church doorposts, quoins, and walls; much of it is still visible today, as are bullet holes in the exterior walls. From this location Lowe repeatedly launched his balloon, Intrepid, to track Confederate troop movements along the Occoquan River, and here he saw the earliest successes of his short-lived Federal Balloon Corps. The church was used as a stable by Union forces during the winter of 1862–63, during which time the interior was stripped of everything save the upper cornice. Some of this damage was documented by Mathew Brady in a photograph taken in 1862.</p><br>
<p>Skirmishes are known to have taken place in the vicinity of the church throughout the war; the area was officially neutral ground, but was populated by guerrillas attempting to disrupt local military operations. Jacob Erwin of Company C of the 1st New York Cavalry, killed in one such action, is believed to have been the first volunteer cavalryman of the Army of the Potomac to have been killed during the conflict.</p><br>
<p>Robert E. Lee is recorded as having been a member of the congregation at some time during this period of its history.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Civil War</h3><br>
<p>The congregation of Pohick Church had scattered thoroughly by the end of the war, so that for a time the building stood empty and unused. In 1874 the structure began to see a return to its original purpose once again. Renovations, paid for by a donor from New York City, were undertaken beginning in that year to make it suitable for use, but no attempt was made to restore the church to its colonial splendor. The box pews were replaced by straight benches, and other architectural elements were added which bore traces of the Victorian Gothic style. and by 1908 the church property consisted of forty-three acres of land as well as the rectory and parish hall.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 the original vestry book of Pohick Church was recovered by Reverend Philip Slaughter, an event which appears to have inspired new interest in the history of the parish. Contributing to the new attitude was the publication of two books, The Life and Correspondence of George Mason by Kate Mason Rowland in 1891 and Dr. Slaughters own The History of Truro Parish in Virginia in 1908. These works, coupled with the efforts during the nineteenth century of Reverend Samuel Wallis, introduced parishioners, previously cognizant only of George Washingtons connection with the church, to the roles played by the McCarty family, George Mason, Jeremiah Bronaugh, and Lee Massey, among others, in its history.</p><br>
<p>Not long after the structure reopened for worship, the Mount Vernon Ladies Association, at the instigation of a member of the vestry, began to take an interest in its workings. The association took a pew in the church, and members sometimes attended services there. and the Daughters of the American Revolution. They were overseen by architect Glenn Brown, and much of the woodwork currently visible in the church is his handiwork. Contributions to the repair fund came from around the country, and descendants of the original pewholders were contacted to restore their respective families pews. Phoebe Hearst provided the money to construct a temporary space for worship to continue while the original church was being refitted; this white frame structure soon became known as "Hearst Hall" in her honor, and went on to serve as a parish hall for the community. Additional support for the project was provided by Harrison Howell Dodge, a member of the vestry who served as superintendent of Mount Vernon for many years. The restoration also saw the replacement of the pulpit with one patterned along colonial lines. In 1912 a pew in the church was dedicated to Ann Pamela Cunningham, first regent of the Ladies&#39; Association, for her work in preserving both Mount Vernon and the church, a dedication which no longer exists.</p><br>
<p>In 1916 an endowment was in the process of being raised to provide support for the congregation, which was described by numerous sources as being poor and lacking the money necessary to support repairs to the building; at this time the rector was Reverend Everard Meade, a grandson of the bishop whose account had earlier made the church&#39;s plight known. Some original pieces of the interior fittings have been returned to the church as part of the restoration works; a piece of the balustrade surrounding the communion rail was sent back by the taker or a member of his family, as was a fragment of the Washington pew; the latter, returned in 1986, provided an indication of the original color of the woodwork, and provided a match to be used in the refitting of the interior. The church continues to be home to an active congregation, members of which give tours of the structure after Sunday services and at sporadic other times; the building is also open for self-guided tours daily. A chapter of the Brotherhood of St. Andrew has existed at the church for many years, and is today one of the largest and most active in the country.</p><br>
<h3>Documentation and recognition</h3><br>
<p>Pohick Church was photographed by Frances Benjamin Johnston in 1930 as part of the Carnegie Survey of the Architecture of the South; it was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1941. It was added to the Virginia Landmarks Register in 1968, and to the National Register of Historic Places the following year. Restoration and maintenance of the church property is currently overseen by the Historic Pohick Church Foundation, formally known as the Pohick Church Endowment Fund Inc., a nonprofit organization established in 1983.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>Pohick Church is a two-story tall rectangular building with a hipped roof and modillioned cornice. The construction material, Flemish bond Such a wall had been part of the original design when the church was completed, but was ultimately rejected by the vestry as being too expensive; it was replaced with a wooden post fence. Stylistically, the church has been described as belonging to the Late Georgian school of architecture, with Palladian tendencies; one source has called it "a sophisticated essay in the Georgian style", and states that it "recalls the more refined dissenter chapels of 18th-century England".</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The church interior, described by one writer as "probably the most sophisticated interior of its time in the colonies", contains two aisles, with a separate entry door for each one. The box pews conform to the traditional English arrangement. Markers have been affixed to many pews in memory of past members of the church community. As nearly the whole of the original interior woodwork was destroyed during the Civil War, what exists today is an example of early Colonial Revival design dating to the restorations of the early twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>Two baptismal fonts remain in the church. The newer of the two was carved by William Copein from a design in a book by Batty Langley; its base was destroyed during the American Civil War and it was removed from the church for some time, although it was later returned.</p><br>
<p>A description of the interior prior to its restoration survives in an oral history of the church:</p><br>
<p>The Church had been practically abandoned for some years and was in a bad state of delapidation, but the beautiful carved work that had been done by William Bernard Sears, soon after the church was built, had not then been molested. My mother used to sit in the church and read the Lords Prayer and Ten Commandments over the Chancel, and admire the gilded dove that Mr. Sears had placed high over the Pulpit. The Eye&#39; which he also had made seemed to be looking at her no matter where she sat.</p><br>
<p>Little remains of the original interior fabric of the church, save for the cornice and one baluster on the chancel rail. Much of the rest is a conjectural reconstruction dating to the early years of the twentieth century. Notably, despite the presence of the second tier of windows there was no gallery inside during the colonial era; the current gallery was installed early in the twentieth century. Further restoration of the interior is in progress. Contemporary fittings inside the church include needlework cushions in a number of pews, worked by women of the parish and friends of the congregation and depicting symbols and scenes of historic significance both to Pohick Church and the surrounding area; the Episcopal Church as a whole; and the state of Virginia.</p><br>
<h3>Ancillary buildings</h3><br>
<p>On November 5, 1772, during a meeting of the Truro Parish vestry, it was ordered that a vestry house be built at Pohick Church. Specifications were laid that the structure be built of brick, twenty-four by eighteen feet, with a wooden floor and a chimney inside, three windows, and walls one-and-a-half bricks thick. In 1774 the vestry rescinded its order, as the cost of construction was found to be too great. The plan was revived in 1931 to commemorate the bicentennials of both the parish and the birth of George Washington; the resulting structure, completed in that year, was constructed of old brick and incorporates a fireplace mantel from an 18th-century house and a fender from the 1753 glebe house of the parish. The structure, which stands to the east of the church, continues to be used by the vestry for meetings and contains a gift shop as well, proceeds from whose sales are used to support church missions and other outreach projects.</p><br>
<p>To the south of the church is a parish house, completed in 1955 in a style complementary to that of the main building; an addition to this structure was constructed in the 1980s. To the southwest sits the rectory, completed in 1963. The belfry in the churchyard was erected at the time of the restoration works in the early twentieth century, and was fitted at its construction with a bronze bell inscribed "In Memory of Washington&quot it was the gift of a donor from New York, Augustus Schermerhorn. None of these ancillary structures is included in the National Register nomination, nor are they considered of historic significance in the County&#39;s discussions of the site.</p><br>
<h2>Archives and collections</h2><br>
<p>Numerous gifts have been presented to Pohick Church over the years; these include a plate and cup of hammered silver, dating to 1711 and 1716 respectively; a chalice from the United States Marine Corps; a bread box and silver cruets, from the Corps of Engineers; and a silver paten. More recent gifts have included several pieces of silver crafted in Alexandria. A cross for the altar table was provided by the Bishop of Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>Due to the vicissitudes of the congregation&#39;s history, the archives of Pohick Church are not extensive. Nevertheless, they do contain a handful of notable books and documents. Chief among these is the original vestry book of Truro Parish, which documents every vestry from 1732 until the organization was disbanded on January 23, 1785. The book was then used by the Overseers of the Poor, legal successors to the vestry, until 1802. The book was lost for 75 years – William Meade writes that he "can hear no tidings" of it in Old Churches and Families in Virginia, published in 1857 – but was eventually repurchased by the church for $20. It was held for a time at Mount Vernon, and was later deposited with the Library of Congress, with copies left with the church office for record-keeping. The vestry book has been digitized, and is available online for perusal.</p><br>
<p>Other books in the church archive include a 1761 prayer book imported by George Washington, later adapted by erasure and insertion from the old order into the new. A two-volume Bible of 1796 was donated to the church in 1802 by George Washington Parke Custis; it is inscribed inside by him, and further contains an inscription written by a Civil War soldier who took possession of it in 1861. It was later found in a collection of old books which had been donated to the church by an unknown person. The pledge book circulated by Reverend Johnson to raise funds for repairs, which contains the signatures of many notables of the period, still exists. The archive also contains the grave marker of Katherine Popkins, dated 1766, which is the lone surviving stone from the graveyard of the congregation&#39;s former location in Colchester.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery of Pohick Church was initially surveyed and platted to the west of the church building, and was only officially organized in 1886. Burials are formally recorded as having taken place in the churchyard beginning in 1840, although oral tradition among some local families indicates that some interments took place as early as the 1790s, and John Gadsby Chapman&#39;s painting of the church dated 1835 depicts some tombstones in the yard, several broken or toppled, near the site of the current vestry house. Locations of these earlier graves are now unknown; all pre-1886 grave markers seen in the cemetery today have been moved to the site from elsewhere in Fairfax County. Additional land was added to the cemetery in 1920. A memorial garden, accepting only cremated remains, also exists on the church grounds, at the foot of the belfry. The oldest remaining tombstones original to the cemetery are those of Eliza Harover, erected in 1865, and John Robertson, dating to the following year; the burial of Ann S. Nevitt, on October 2, 1875, is the first for which a written record was kept.</p><br>
<p>A number of figures notable in the early history of Fairfax County and the surrounding area are buried in the cemetery, many of their graves having been moved from other sites over the years. Among these are a number of members of the Fitzhugh family, including Continental Congressman William Fitzhugh. The Fitzhugh plantation, Ravensworth, was the centerpiece of the largest landholding in the county; its plantation house was destroyed by fire in 1926, and the graves from the family cemetery were moved to the church in 1957. The graves of several members of the Alexander family, for whom Alexandria is named, were relocated from Preston Plantation in 1922. The grave of Will Harris (died 1698), formerly of Neabsco Plantation in Prince William County, is the oldest in Fairfax County; it was moved from its original location in 1954 as a result of highway construction. Other graves and gravestones in the churchyard were moved from Summer Hill, Bradley, Stisted (in the former town of Colchester), Mount Air, Cedar Grove, Belmont, Springfield, Cameron, and Halstead plantations; also reinterred there were remains from the West family cemetery in Alexandria. Daniel French, original contractor of the present church building, is also buried in the churchyard; at his death in 1771, he was interred at Rose Hill, but his grave was moved in 1954. The grave of the wife of the first rector of the current church, Elizabeth Massey, is near the vestry house; her husband, Lee, is interred inside the church building. Both of their bodies were moved from the cemetery of their plantation, Bradley, in 1908. The grave of William Brown, Surgeon General of the Continental Army and personal physician to George Washington, is also among those which have been removed to the churchyard over the years.</p><br>
<p>Other notable figures buried at Pohick Church include novelist and playwright Paul Kester and his mother; Kester, whose brother Vaughan is memorialized inside the church, George A. Malcolm, teacher at the Lorton Valley School and Fairfax County deputy sheriff, is also interred in the churchyard; he was shot on April 6, 1905, while attempting to arrest a man who had been harassing students at the school, and became the County&#39;s first law enforcement officer to be killed in the line of duty. At the time of his death he was also serving as the deputy treasurer of the Mount Vernon and Lee districts. Harrison Howell Dodge is also buried in the cemetery, Near the Fitzhugh graves is a memorial marker to Long Tom, a chief of the Doeg tribe, who according to legend was killed by Susanna Alexander to save either herself or her husband John during an attack. According to Alexander family lore, he was buried at the Preston plantation cemetery and his remains were moved to Pohick with those of the family; the exact location of his grave in the churchyard, however, is not known. A memorial to John Augustine Washington, brother of George, was erected by a local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1986, but it does not mark a known gravesite.</p><br>
<p>The first wife of Rear Admiral Donald Temple Eller is buried at Pohick Church; the Admiral is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, but some of his ashes were interred next to her grave. Also in the churchyard is the grave of Carnegie Medal recipient John Charles Springer, who served as a vestryman at the church and as secretary of the Historic Pohick Church Foundation; his medal is depicted on his grave marker.</p><br>
<p>A memorial to the unknown dead interred in the cemetery was erected in 1925, and has since been set into the brick wall surrounding the parish house. It reads:</p><br>
<p>To the Unknown Dead of Pohick Church</p><br>
<p>this Tribute of Respect is paid the</p><br>
<p>Many Parishioners Buried in this Hallowed Churchyard</p><br>
<p>The Records are Lost & the Graves</p><br>
<p>cannot now be identified</p><br>
<p>1925</p><br>
<p>Several surveys of the cemetery have taken place over the years, beginning with that done by Carrie White Avery in 1923. The results of another survey, done in 1967, were published by Edna May Stevens and Lesba Lewis Thompson as Tombstone Records of Pohick Church, Fairfax County, Virginia. A third survey, done by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints from the Annandale, Virginia stake, was sponsored by the Fairfax Genealogical Society; its results were checked against earlier parish records, and the entire survey was rechecked for errors in the summer of 1998.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery remains active and open to members of the congregation for burial; it is not a public cemetery, and interment is restricted to members of the congregation and those non-members with family buried there. Earlier remains continue to be reinterred there as well; if unmarked graves are found on land whose ownership can be traced back to original members of the parish, the church is willing to discuss moving them to the churchyard. Fences and permanent plantings are prohibited in the churchyard, and use of artificial flowers is restricted, as is the design of gravestones.</p><br>
<h3>Remeum</h3><br>
<p>Charles Mason Remey, a descendant of George Mason, contracted with Pohick Church in 1937 to build a family mausoleum on its grounds, to be located on five acres of land about one half-mile south of the church building. Called "the Remeum", it was to be a "magnificent complex of walled courtyards, underground chambers with soaring vaulted ceilings, marble reliefs and statues, carved pillars, chapels and burial vaults", and was planned as a memorial to his family and its contributions to American history. Construction began in 1939; when finished, the structure was four times the size of Pohick Church itself. Sculptural work was done for the mausoleum by Felix de Weldon; reliefs illustrated historic events in which the family participated, and depicted scenes from the lives of Saints Peter, Paul, and Stephen. The structure was guarded by a pair of sleeping lions, and statues inside included depictions of Faith and Charity as well as a copy of the Bruges Madonna of Michaelangelo and life-sized statues of Remey&#39;s parents and wife. Also inside was a massive marble sarcophagus, transported from Lisbon, for Remey himself. The grounds were landscaped, the underground areas electrified. A trust account was established with the church for maintenance. Remey eventually transported the bodies of fifteen other relatives to the mausoleum, mostly from his home state of Iowa. Some two million bricks were used in the construction of the mausoleum, and Remey planned to crown it with a three-story structure that would have dwarfed the church.</p><br>
<p>Problems soon developed, and the mausoleum site became the target of vandals. As a preventative measure, the entrance was bricked up to prevent access, but the wall was breached in 1956. By 1958 the church vestry became concerned, and in 1962 refused to grant permission for any more work to be done on the site. Soon negotiations began to break the original contract; in 1968 the property reverted to the church, and Remey was given five years to remove anything of value from the site. Most of the dead were taken by relatives to another family cemetery in New York; Remeys wife Gertrude was reinterred in the main church cemetery. After the last of the bodies were removed, the Remeum was demolished beginning in 1973, and the last of the aboveground ruins was finally bulldozed ten years later. Little remains on the site to mark the former presence of the complex save an obelisk dedicated to Remeys parents and a pair of structures which served as chimneys or vents. Urban legends about the site persist, describing parties in the crypts below the mausoleum.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>Pohick Church and its cemetery play a large role in the childrens novel Cinnabar, the One OClock Fox by Marguerite Henry, published in 1956. Private Robert Knox Sneden was stationed at the church during the Civil War, and it figures prominently in his diary and watercolors, which were published in 2002 as Eye of the Storm.</p><br>
<p>The Dog Iron Ranch, located about two miles east of Oologah, Oklahoma, USA, is the historic ranch and birthplace of humorist Will Rogers. It was donated to the state of Oklahoma by the Rogers family. The current property comprises 400 acre of the original 60,000 acre  ranch operated by Clem Rogers, Will&#39;s father. Originally the ranch contained up to 10,000 Texas Longhorn cattle. The present ranch has 50 Longhorns.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was constructed in 1875 by Clem Rogers, who lived there until his wife died in 1890. His son Will Rogers was born on November 4, 1879. It is a two-story Greek Revival style building. The first floor is constructed of native oak, hickory and walnut logs. It measures 48 feet by 32 feet, covering an area of 1,536 ft2. Originally the two front rooms were each 16 ft by 16 ft were separated by a dog trot, that was later enclosed to make a foyer. The downstairs rooms were used as a parlor and a master bedroom that also served as Clem Rogers&#39; office. A lean-to addition comprised the kitchen, dining room and a spare bedroom. The upstairs part over the "front rooms"contained two more bedrooms.</p><br>
<p>Clem Rogers was highly influential in local politics. Thus, the house served not only as a family residence, but represented a seat of local political power. It was often called "The White House on the Verdigris."</p><br>
<p>The present barn was erected July 17, 1993 by two dozen Amish carpenters who knew the traditional notch and peg type of construction that was commonly employed in the 19th Century. However, the peak roof is covered with asphalt shingles instead of wooden shakes for greater fire safety. The new barn is 48 ft by 64 ft, instead of 50 ft by 60 ft for economic reasons. The original barn and possibly two replacements had been destroyed by wildfires. The current barn not only has traditional stalls, it now includes a classroom area that is also usable as an eating area.</p><br>
<p>The house where Will Rogers was born was moved about a mile in the 1960s to its present site on the ranch due to construction of nearby Lake Oologah.</p><br>
<p>On March 7, 2016, Governor Mary Fallon signed Senate Bill 1570 into law, which put the Will Rogers Memorial Commission, which governed both the Will Rogers Memorial Museum and the Dog Iron Ranch, Will Rogers&#39; Birthplace in Oologah, under the control of the Oklahoma Historical Society. The new law became effective immediately.</p><br>
<p>The ranch is open to visitors daily from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM. Admission is by voluntary contributions.</p><br>
<p>The property known as Will Rogers Ranch in Pacific Palisades was purchased by the actor in the early 1930s after Rogers moved to California. It became the Will Rogers State Historic Park (a California State Park) in 1944.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Lingmoor Fell is a fell in the English Lake District, situated eight kilometres  west of Ambleside. The fell reaches a modest height of 469 m  and divides the valleys of Great Langdale and Little Langdale. The fell&#39;s name originates from the Old Norse word lyng meaning “heather covered”. The actual summit of the fell is named as Brown How on Ordnance Survey maps.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Although it is surrounded by higher and better-known fells, Lingmoor Fell is quite separate and distinct with no connecting ridges to other fells, giving it a considerable (for such a small fell) topographic prominence of 245 metres (804 feet), making it a Marilyn hill. Lingmoor Fell has a subsidiary top, known as Side Pike (362 m, 1,187 ft), which lies 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles) to the north-west. This is a fine rock tower accessible only from the west and south. Walkers wishing to visit Side Pike from Lingmoor Fell are blocked by unassailable crags and must traverse round to easier slopes to the south.</p><br>
<p>The fell&#39;s northern and eastern flanks are clothed in deciduous woodland up to the 200-metre contour, and there are also patches of heather and bracken on these lower slopes. Lingmoor Tarn, an attractive mountain lake about 200 metres (about 650 feet) in length with a couple of small islands, lies 600 metres (about 650 yards) north of the summit. One kilometre (0.6 miles) north of the summit of the fell stands another topographic feature; this is the detached rock pinnacle of Oak Howe Needle. The needle is part of Oak Howe Crag, a popular climbing location on the fell, with over ten routes on Rhyolite crags.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The summit area is formed from a large sill of andesite, overlying the dacitic lapilli-tuff of the Lingmoor Fell Formation.</p><br>
<h2>Quarrying</h2><br>
<p>Lingmoor Fell&#39;s north-eastern slopes above the villages of Elterwater and Chapel Stile have long been quarried for its high-quality Westmorland green slate. The Burlington quarry at Elterwater has been worked for over 300 years and is still in production today, turning out over 800 tonnes of slate annually. Many of the quarries have closed over the years and the crags are now used by rock climbers.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Lingmoor Fell can be climbed either from Elterwater in Great Langdale or from the Blea Tarn car park in Little Langdale (grid reference ). The latter route makes use of an old quarry track for much of the way. The Elterwater route can be slightly confusing in its early stages as there are a jumble of paths through the lower woodland and quarries, the route becomes clear once the open fell has been reached.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of the fell is crossed by a high dry stone wall, which in fact traverses the entire spine of the fell, starting at the eastern foot and terminating abruptly at the crags below Side Pike in the west before re-commencing on the plateau. The view from the summit of Lingmoor Fell is highly regarded. There is a classic view of the Langdale Pikes and all of the high fells around the head of Great Langdale can be well appraised. The Coniston Fells to the south-west are also well seen.</p><br>
<p>Luther Burbank&#39;s Gold Ridge Experiment Farm is the official name of the 3 acre that remain of the farm originally purchased in 1885 by famed plant breeder Luther Burbank  in an area of Sebastopol, California, formerly known as the "Gold Ridge District". To these 10 acre, Burbank added 5 acre in 1904 and 3.046 acre in 1906 until, in 1923, failing health compelled him to sell-off 3.046 acre of his holdings. Burbank died in 1926.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, Burbanks widow, Elizabeth Waters Burbank (1888-1977), donated the remaining 15 acre to the Sebastopol Area Housing Corporation for the purpose of erecting low-income, senior, and disabled housing units with the stipulation that the 3 acre parcel containing the "Caretakers Cottage" (that had been constructed a year or two after an older cottage on the property was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake), the barn, the potting shed (destroyed by fire in the late 1960s) and over 250 living specimens of Burbank&#39;s work be set aside and left undisturbed as a historical and horticultural area, dedicated to Burbank, to be studied and enjoyed by future generations. Presently owned by the City of Sebastopol, it is administrated by the Western Sonoma County Historical Society and maintained entirely by volunteers.</p><br>
<h2>History of Gold Ridge Farm</h2><br>
<p>Faced with the need for more room in which to conduct his experiments in perennial plants, trees and shrubs than could be accommodated by his nursery at his home and gardens in Santa Rosa, Burbank purchased Gold Ridge Farm chiefly because of its subtle variations in environments, exposures and elevations. This allowed him to conduct experiments on plants that varied greatly in characteristics. In its heyday, some estimates put the number of Burbank&#39;s on-going plant experiments at Gold Ridge Farm at over 60,000 and tended by a crew of as many as 15 to 20 workers.</p><br>
<p>After Burbanks death in 1926, the remaining extant Burbank plants were cataloged by representatives from Stark Brothers Nursery in Missouri (an influential former client of Burbanks) after which the farm fell into disuse and disrepair until the mid-1970s.</p><br>
<p>The Western Sonoma County Historical Society was formed in Sebastopol at that time from the ranks of local volunteers with the original mission of assuring the preservation and maintenance of Burbank&#39;s Gold Ridge Farm. This mission has expanded to presently include the West Sonoma County Museum (headquartered at the old train depot building in downtown Sebastopol), the Sebastopol Archives and the Triggs Reference Room and genealogical archives.</p><br>
<p>Today, Luther Burbank&#39;s Gold Ridge Experiment Farm is both a horticultural and historical museum where the public can, by docent or self-guided tour, view literally hundreds of the "living legacies" of the man once called "The Plant Wizard".</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Gold Ridge Farm is located at 7777 Bodega Ave. (about 1 mi west of Main Street) in Sebastopol and is open to the public. This address does not receive mail. Visitors are welcome to park in the parking strip between Bodega Ave. and the senior housing, and walk through the gate that is just to the west of the parking area. The Farm is accessed by car through its neighbor, Burbank Heights & Orchards at 7777 Bodega Ave. Parking is also available up the hill past the cottage.</p><br>
<p>The Western Sonoma County Historical Society and the West County Museum are located at 261 South Main Street, Sebastopol CA 95472. www.wschsgrf.org</p><br>
<p>Tinhosa Grande is an islet in São Tomé and Príncipe located 100 km northeast of the main island of São Tomé and approximately 20 km southwest of the island of Príncipe. The islet is south of nearby smaller islet named Tinhosa Pequena by a few kilometers.</p><br>
<p>Since 2012, it forms a part of the UNESCO&#39;s Island of Príncipe Biosphere Reserve (also known as Príncipe Biosphere Reserve as it encompass its surrounding islands).</p><br>
<p>Numerous seabirds dominate the islet including Anous stolidus, Anous minutus, Onychoprion fuscatus, white-tailed tropic bird (Phaethon lepturus) and the brown booby (Sula leucogaster) These are also founded on the neighboring islet. Never been founded up to the 20th century, a new species of skinks of the Trachylepsis genus named Trachylepsis adamastor were described before 2015, its English name is the Tinhosa Grande skink</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islet contains dry grasslands and rock ledges up to 40 m high.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islet is of volcanic origin and likely originated not of the volcanic vent from Príncipe. During the Ice Age, the islet elevation was under 150 meters, about 7,000-6,000 BC, its elevation was over 100 meters.</p><br>
<p>The two islets was first discovered between 1470 and 1471, during the discovery of the island of Príncipe by the Portuguese explorers of João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar.</p><br>
<p>On 1 November 1929, the path that showed an annular eclipse was inside the islet. The sky was partly dark and the weather conditions were unknown.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>The islet can be seen from the southwestern part of Príncipe Island, but only rarely from São Tomé Island.</p><br>
